Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Imperfect adaptation: how the WTO and the IMF adjust to shifting power distributions among their members

  • Published:
The Review of International Organizations Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

How do international institutions adjust to shifting power distributions among their members? We argue that institutional adaptations to the rise of emerging and the decline of established powers are different from what power transition theories (PTTs) would lead us to believe. Institutional adaptations are not impossible, as pessimist PTT variants hold; and they are rarely easy to attain, let alone perfect, as optimist PTT variants imply. To bridge the gap between these versions of PTT, we propose an institutionalist power shift theory (IPST) which combines insights on the conditions and mechanisms of institutional change from functionalist, historical and distributive variants of rational institutionalism. IPST claims that institutional adaptations will succeed or fail depending on whether or not emerging powers are able to undermine the international institution and to make credible threats to this effect. To demonstrate IPST’s plausibility we analyze: (1) how India and Brazil gained the agreement of established powers to their membership in the WTO core negotiation group (“Quad”), which had previously been dominated by developed countries; and (2) how China reached agreement with established powers on (more) even-handed surveillance of IMF members’ financial stability, which, up to then, had focused on developing countries and exchange rate issues.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Exacerbated by the security dilemma, this conflict may even trigger great-power wars (Hegre 2008; Vasquez 1996), initiated either by the rising (Organski and Kugler 1980: 39) or declining powers (Chan 2008: 32).

  2. The real threat to world order is not so much competition for a leading role in international institutions but rather that both established and emerging powers act as “shirkers” seeking to avoid the burden of providing and stabilizing order (Schweller and Pu 2011: 64).

  3. This is in line with more recent variations and applications of PTT, which do not presuppose a full-blown power transition (Chan 2008, Schweller and Pu 2011). According to them, PTT is also applicable to a power transition in the making and, even more generally, to any power shift that leads relative winners in terms of aggregate resource power to challenge an institutional status quo which still privileges relative losers of aggregate power.

  4. Among academics and public intellectuals (Bisley 2010; Kennedy 2010; Khanna 2009; Zakaria 2009) as well as policy-makers (Lamy 2012; Reuters 2008), there is a widespread perception “that power is shifting in global politics and that emerging powers are assuming a more prominent, active and important role” (Hurrell and Sengupta 2012: 463), which challenges established Western powers. For example, then WTO Director-General Pascal Lamy (2012) claimed that the “rising weight of influence of emerging economies has shifted the balance of power. This clearly implies a number of transitions.”

  5. The Quad is also the institutionalized core for several informal and exclusive WTO negotiation fora, most notably the so-called Green Room Meetings (during a ministerial conference) and the “Mini-Ministerials” (between the conferences) which – organized by the Director General – bring together Quad members with relevant developed countries and selected developing countries (Drahos 2003; Liang 2005).

  6. The Group of Twenty (G20) is a coalition of developing countries within the WTO. This developing country coalition within the WTO should not be mixed up with the broader G20, i.e. the group of the 20 major economies. Members of the G20 in the WTO are Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, China, Cuba, Ecuador, Egypt, Guatemala, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, South Africa, Tanzania, Thailand, Uruguay, Venezuela, and Zimbabwe.

  7. In this arrangement, the US and the EU represented the most powerful developed countries, Australia represented the Cairns Group, and Brazil and India represented the G20 (Efstathopoulos 2012).

  8. This also served to comfort Japan, which criticized the formation of the FIPs and the new Quad but, due to its deteriorated bargaining position, could not do much about it (Wilkinson and Lee 2007), as well as Australia, which was one of the FIPs but also dropped out of the group of the privileged four in the Quad.

  9. Given the great economic weight and the crucial role in international trade that it has gained over the past three decades, China might also be considered a likely candidate for joining the “new” Quad. However, China became a member of the WTO only in 2001. At that time, Brazil and India had already firmly established themselves as leaders of the developing economies in the WTO. Moreover, after its access to the WTO China pursued a strategy of quietism and shied away from any conflict with established WTO members (Scott and Wilkinson 2013).

  10. The US also suffered from a loss of support from IMF staff. Even before the crisis, a group of key individuals, including Rodrigo De Rato and Mark Allen, had tried to install more even-handedness in IMF surveillance (Blustein 2014). In response to the crisis, however, IMF staff officially recognized that advanced economies and especially their financial sectors could be sources of financial instability (IMF 2009b) and strengthened the call for enhanced systemic surveillance. The IMF even went beyond China’s demands when it explicitly stressed in its 2010 Mandate Review (IMF 2010; see IMF 2011) that there was a need for a full-fledged reform of the surveillance system, including a revision of the relevant Articles of Agreement, so as to render it multidimensional and symmetric in terms of its prescriptions for exchange rates and other policies.

References

  • ActionAid (2004). Divide and rule: The EU and US response to developing country alliances at the WTO. ActionAid International Report, Johannesburg, 1–25

  • Aggarwal, R. (2005). Dynamics of agriculture negotiations in the world trade organization. Journal of World Trade, 39(4), 741–761.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amorim, C. (2003). The real cancún. resource document. wall street journal online, 25th September 2003. http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB106444757752551200. Accessed 23 May 2014

  • Armijo, L. E., & Roberts, C. (2014). The emerging powers and global governance. Why the BRICS matter. In R. E. Looney (Ed.), Handbook of emerging economies (pp. 503–524). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bello, W. (2005). The Real meaning of Hong Kong: Brazil and India join the big boys’ club. http://focusweb.org/node/795. Accessed 21 April 2014

  • Bello, W., & Kwa, A. (2004). G20 leaders succumb to divide-and-rule tactics: The Story Behind Washington’s Triumph in Geneva. http://focusweb.org/node/417. Accessed 22 June 2014

  • Bernanke, Ben S. (2008). Speech delivered at the occasion of the international monetary Conference, Barcelona. http://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/bernanke20080603a.htm. Accessed 15 June 2014

  • Bisley, N. (2010). Global power shift: the decline of the west and the rise of the rest. In M. Beeson, & N. Bisley (Eds.), Issues in 21st century world politics (pp. 66–80). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blatter, J., & Blume, T. (2008). In search of co-variance, causal mechanisms or congruence? Towards a plural understanding of case studies. Swiss Political Science Review, 14(2), 315–356.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blatter, J., & Haverland, M. (2012). Designing case studies: explanatory approaches in small-n research. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Blustein, P. (2014). Off balance: The travails of institutions that govern the global financial system. Waterloo, ON: Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI)

  • BRIC (2009). Communiqué of the first BRIC summit. Yekaterinenburg, June 2009.

  • Bull, A. (2010). U.S. to push for new economic world order at G20. http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/09/21/us-g-idUSTRE58G34Z20090921. Accessed 25 May 2014

  • Chan, S. (2008). China, the U.S., and the power-transition theory. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chin, G., & Yong, W. (2010). Debating the international currency system: what’s in a speech. China Security, 6(1), 3–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cho, S. (2010). The demise of development in the Doha round negotiations. Texas International Law Journal, 45(3), 573–601.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chwieroth, J. (2010). Capital ideas: The IMF and the rise of financial liberalization. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collier, D., Brady, H. E., & Seawright, J. (2010). Sources of leverage in causal inference: toward an alternative view of methodology. In H. E. Brady, & D. Collier (Eds.), Rethinking social inquiry (pp. 161–199). Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diego-Fernández, M. (2008). Trade negotiations make strange bedfellows. World Trade Review, 7(2), 423–453.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drahos, P. (2003). When the weak bargain with the strong: negotiations in the world trade organization. International Negotiation, 8, 79–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drezner, D. W. (2009). Bad debts: assessing China’s financial influence in great power politics. International Security, 34(2), 7–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eckstein, H. (1975). Case study and theory in political science. In F. I. Greenstein, & N. W. Polsby (Eds.), Handbook of political science (pp. 79–137). Reading: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Efstathopoulos, C. (2012). Leadership in the WTO: Brazil, India and the Doha development agenda. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 25(2), 269–293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fioretos, O. (2011). Historical institutionalism in international relations. International Organization, 65(2), 367–399.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • G24 (1982). Communiqué of the Intergovernmental Group of Twenty-Four on International Monetary Affairs and Development, Toronto, September 1982

  • G24 (2007). Communiqué of the Intergovernmental Group of Twenty-Four on International Monetary Affairs and Development, Washington, DC, October 2007

  • G24 (2012). Communiqué of the Intergovernmental Group of Twenty-Four on International Monetary Affairs and Development, Washington, DC, October 2012

  • Geithner, T. (2009). Speech at the occasion of the international monetary and financial committee (IMFC), April 2009. Washington, DC: IMF.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerring, J. (2007). Case study research: principles and practices. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghose, A. (2013). Prospects for a new arms control agenda. An Indian perspective. In O. Meier, & C. Daase (Eds.), Arms control in the 21st century: between coercion and cooperation (pp. 208–219). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilpin, R. (1981). War and change in world politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Grassley, C. (2003). Collapse of trade negotiations in cancún. resource document. press release from senator chuck grassley of iowa, chair of the US senate committee on finance, 14 September 2003. http://www.grassley.senate.gov/news/news-releases/collapse-trade-negotiations. Accessed: 4 September 2014

  • Hegre, H. (2008). Gravitating toward war: preponderance may pacify, but power kills. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 52(4), 566–589.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirschman, A. O. (1970). Exit, voice and loyalty: responses to decline in firms, organizations and states. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hopewell, K. (2014). Different paths to power: the rise of Brazil, India and China at the world trade organization. Review of International Political Economy. doi:10.1080/09692290.2014.927387.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hu, X. (2007). Statement on behalf of the People’s Republic of China on the occasion of the international monetary and financial committee (IMFC), April 2007. Washington, DC: IMF.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hurrell, A., & Narlikar, A. (2006). A new politics of confrontation? Brazil and India in multilateral trade negotiations. Global Society, 20(4), 415–433.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hurrell, A., & Sengupta, S. (2012). Emerging powers, north-south relations and global climate politics. International Affairs, 88(3), 463–484.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IEO (2009). Evaluation report: IMF interactions with member countries. Washington, DC: IMF Internal Evaluation Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ikenberry, G. J. (2011). The future of the liberal world order. Foreign Affairs, 90(3), 56–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • IMF (2005). The managing director’s report on the fund’s medium-term strategy. DC: Washington.

    Google Scholar 

  • IMF (2009a). The 2007 surveillance decision: revised operational guidance. DC: Washington.

    Google Scholar 

  • IMF (2009b). Initial lessons from the crisis. DC: Washington.

    Google Scholar 

  • IMF (2010). Review of the fund’s mandate. DC: Washington.

    Google Scholar 

  • IMF (2011). Triennial surveillance review. DC: Washington.

    Google Scholar 

  • IMF (2012). Modernizing the legal framework for surveillance: an integrated surveillance decision. DC: Washington.

    Google Scholar 

  • India & the WTO (2000). A monthly news letter of the ministry of commerce and industry, 2(3). http://commerce.nic.in/publications/india_wto_newsletter_archive.asp. Accessed 22 April 2014.

  • India & the WTO (2004). A monthly news letter of the ministry of commerce and industry, 6(1/2). http://commerce.nic.in/publications/india_wto_newsletter_archive.asp. Accessed 14 June 2014.

  • Inman, P. (2010). US Intensifies trade row with China, http://www.theguardian.com/business/2010/oct/22/geithner-trade-surplus-cap-call. Accessed 14 May 2014

  • Ismail, F. (2009). An assessment of the WTO Doha round July–December 2008 collapse. World Trade Review, 8(4), 579–605.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jing Gu, J. H., & Messner, D. (2008). Global governance and developing countries: the implications of the rise of China. World Development, 36(2), 274–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, A. I. (2003). Is China a status quo power? International Security, 27(4), 5–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jupille, J., Mattli, W., & Snidal, D. (2013). Institutional choice and global commerce. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, P. (1981). The realities behind diplomacy: background influences on British external policy, 1865–1980. Glasgow: Fontana.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, P. (2010). Rise and fall. World Today, 66(8/9), 6–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keohane, R. O. (1984). After hegemony: cooperation and discord in the world political economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keohane, R. O. (Ed.) (1989). International institutions and state power: essays in international relations theory. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khanna, P. (2009). The second world: how emerging powers are redefining global competition in the twenty-first century. New York: Random House.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, G., Keohane, R. O., & Verba, S. (1994). Designing social inquiry: scientific inference in qualitative research. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koremenos, B., Lipson, C., & Snidal, D. (2001). The rational design of international institutions. International Organization, 55(4), 761–799.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krasner, S. D. (1991). Global communications and national power: life on the Pareto frontier. World Politics, 43(3), 336–366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lamy, P. (2000). India-Europe relations in the age of globalization: the challenges and opportunities ahead. Speech of the EU Trade Commissioner Pascal Lamy, New Delhi, 6 March 2000

  • Lamy, P. (2003). Trade crisis. Speech of the EU Trade Commissioner Pascal Lamy, Washington, DC, 4 November 2003

  • Lamy, P. (2012). The future of the multilateral trading system. Speech of the WTO Director-General. https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/sppl_e/sppl258_e.htm. Accessed 14 December 2015

  • Liang, M. (2005). Evolution of the WTO decision-making process. Singapore Year Book of International Law, 9, 125–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahoney, J., & Thelen, K. (2010). A gradual theory of institutional change. In J. Mahoney, & K. Thelen (Eds.), Explaining institutional change: ambiguity, agency, and power (pp. 1–37). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malkin, A., & Momani, B. (2011). Emerging powers and IMF reform: where multipolarity in the world economy is leading the fund. St. Antony’s International Review, 7(1), 61–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mandelson, P. (2005). Statement to general affairs council: Doha round negotiations and the commission mandate. Speech of the EU Trade Commissioner Peter Mandelson, Luxemburg, 18 October 2005

  • Mantega, G. (2012). Statement by Mr. Guido mantega minister of finance, Brazil on behalf of the constituency comprising Brazil, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guyana, Haiti, panama, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago at the occasion of the international monetary and financial committee (IMFC), Washington, DC: IMF

  • Matthews, A. (2005). The road from Doha to Hong Kong in the WTO agricultural negotiations: a developing country perspective. European Review of Agricultural Economics, 32(4), 561–574.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Modelski, G. (1978). The long cycle of global politics and the nation-state. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 20(2), 214–235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Modelski, G. (1987). Long cycles in world politics. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Modelski, G. (2005). Long-term trends in world politics. Journal of World-Systems Research, 11(2), 195–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Momani, B., & English, K. A. (2014). In lieu of an anchor: the fund and its surveillance function. In T. Oatley, & W. K. Winecoff (Eds.), Handbook of the international political economy of monetary relations (pp. 428–449). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

    Google Scholar 

  • Momani, B. & Menzies, X. (2012). World Bank nominees must come from emerging economies. https://www.cigionline.org/articles/world-bank-nominees-must-come-emerging-economies. Accessed 15 December 2015

  • Morse, J. C., & Keohane, R. O. (2014). Contested multilateralism. Review of. International Organizations, 9(3), 385–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Narlikar, A. (2006). Peculiar chauvinism or strategic calculation? Explaining the negotiation strategy of rising India. International Affairs, 82(1), 59–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Narlikar, A., & Tussie, D. (2004). The G20 at the cancún ministerial: developing countries and their evolving coalitions in the WTO. World Economy, 27(7), 947–966.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nye, J. S. (2010). American and Chinese power after the financial crisis. The Washington Quarterly, 33(4), 143–153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Organski, A. F. K. (1968). World politics. New York: Knopf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Organski, A. F. K., & Kugler, J. (1980). The war ledger. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pierson, P. (2000). Increasing returns, path dependence, and the study of politics. American Political Science Review, 94(2), 251–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pisani-Ferry, J., & Posen, A. S. (2011). From convoy to parting ways? Post-crisis divergence between European and US Macroeconomic Policies. Bruegel Working Paper No. 2011/04, Brussels

  • Putnam, R. (1988). Diplomacy and domestic politics: the logic of two-level games. International Organization, 42(3), 427–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qu, B. (2010). Dynamic engagement: China’s preference to the international monetary cooperation. 2nd Annual Colloquium of the Oxford-Princeton Global Leaders Fellowship Programme at Princeton University, Vol. 3, Princeton, NJ

  • Raghavan, C. (2000). After Seattle, world trade system faces uncertain future. Review of International Political Economy, 7(3), 495–504.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reiterer, M. (2009). The Doha development agenda of the WTO: possible institutional implications. Progress in Development Studies, 9(4), 359–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reuters (2008). Key quotes on the shift in global power. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-davos-power-idUSL2461117220080124#rVoKmYMZMuSsXFJf.97. Accessed 15 December 2015

  • Schelling, T. C. (1960). The strategy of conflict. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schirm, S. A. (2010). Leaders in need of followers: emerging powers in global governance. European Journal of International Relations, 16(2), 197–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schirm, S. A. (2013). Global politics are domestic politics: a societal approach to divergence in the G20. Review of International Studies, 39(3), 685–706.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schott, J. J. (2000). The WTO after Seattle. In J. J. Schott (Ed.), The WTO after Seattle (pp. 3–40). Washington: Peterson Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schott, J. J., & Watal, J. (2000). Decision making in the WTO. In J. J. Schott (Ed.), The WTO after Seattle (pp. 283–292). Washington: Peterson Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schweller, R. (2011). Emerging powers in an age of disorder. Global Governance, 17(3), 285–297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schweller, R., & Pu, X. (2011). After unipolarity: China’s vision of international order in an era of U.S. decline. International Security, 36(1), 41–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, J., & Wilkinson, R. (2013). China threat? Evidence from the WTO. Journal of World Trade, 47(4), 761–782.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seabrooke, L. (2007). Legitimacy gaps in the world economy: explaining the sources of the IMF’s legitimacy crisis. International Politics, 44(2), 250–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sebenius, J. K. (1992). Challenging conventional explanations of international cooperation: negotiation analysis and the case of epistemic communities. International Organization, 46(1), 323–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland, P., & Sewell, J. (2001). Challenges facing the WTO and policies to address global governance. In G. P. Sampson (Ed.), The role of the world trade organization in global governance (pp. 81–111). Tokyo: United Nations University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, I. (2007). The periphery strikes back? The G20 at the WTO. In D. Lee, & R. Wilkinson (Eds.), The WTO after Hong Kong: progress in, and prospects for, the Doha development agenda (pp. 155–168). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • UNCTAD (2000). A positive agenda for developing countries: issues for future trade negotiations. New York. Geneva: United Nations.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vasquez, J. A. (1996). When are power transitions dangerous? An appraisal and reformulation of power transition theory. In J. Kugler, & D. Lemke (Eds.), Parity and war: evaluations and extensions of the war ledger (pp. 97–119). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vickers, B. (2012). The role of the BRICS in the WTO: system-supporters or change agents in multilateral trade. In A. Narlikar, M. Daunton, & R. M. Stern (Eds.), The oxford handbook on the world trade organization (pp. 254–273). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walter, A. (2010). Global imbalances and currency politics: the US, EU, and China. In R. Ross, Ø. Tunsjø, & Z. Tuosheng (Eds.), US-EU-China relations: promoting cooperation and managing conflicts of interest (pp. 235–258). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, L. (2010). India and the NPT. Strategic Analysis, 34(2), 255–271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson, R. (2006). The WTO: crisis and the governance of global trade. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson, R., & Lee, D. (2007). The WTO after Hong Kong: setting the scene for understanding the round. In D. Lee, & R. Wilkinson (Eds.), The WTO after Hong Kong: progress in, and prospects for, the Doha development agenda (pp. 3–25). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, D., & Zangl, B. (1996). The European economic and monetary union: ‘two-level games’ and the formation of international institutions. European Journal of International Relations, 2(3), 355–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WTO (1999a). Brazil: Statement by H.E. Mr. Luiz Felipe Lampreia Minister of Foreign Relations. 3rd Ministerial Conference, Seattle, 1 December 1999

  • WTO (1999b). India: Statement by H.E. Mr. Murasoli Maran Minister of Commerce and Industry. 3rd Ministerial Conference, Seattle, 30 November 1999

  • WTO (2005a). Brazil: Statement by H.E. Mr Celso Amorim, Minister of External Relations. 6th Ministerial Conference, Hong Kong, 14 December 2005

  • WTO (2005b). India: Statement by H.E. Mr Kamal Nath, Minister of Commerce and Industry. 6th Ministerial Conference, Hong Kong, 14 December 2005

  • WTO (2005c). United States: Statement by H.E. Mr Robert Portman, United States Trade Representative. 6th Ministerial Conference, Hong Kong, 14 December 2005

  • WTO (2007). Declaration on development concerns and issues in the current WTO negotiations. communication from the acp group, the african group, the LDC group, Bolivia and Venezuela, 21 June 2007.

  • Yi, G. (2008). Statement on behalf of People’s Republic of China, at the occasion of the international monetary and financial committee (IMFC). Washington, DC: IMF.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yi, G. (2012). Statement on behalf of People’s Republic of China, at the occasion of the international monetary and financial committee (IMFC). Washington, DC: IMF.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zakaria, F. (2009). The post-American world. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, M. (2009). China’s new international financial strategy amid the global financial crisis. China & World Economy, 17(5), 22–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, X. (2008). Statement on behalf of People’s Republic of China at the occasion of the international monetary and financial committee (IMFC), April 2008. Washington, DC: IMF.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, X. (2009). Reform of the international monetary system. Resource document. Open letter of the Central Bank Governor. http://www.pbc.gov.cn/publish/english/956/2009/20091229104425550619706/20091229104425550619706_.html. Accessed 29 June 2014

  • Zoellick, R. B. (2003a). Press conference of the US trade representative Robert B. Zoellick. 14 September 2003. http://www.iatp.org/news/us-trade-representative-robert-b-zoellick-press-conference-september-14-2003#sthash.o5kDQdYd.dpuf. Accessed 11 June 2014

  • Zoellick, R. B. (2003b). America will not wait for the won’t do countries. Financial Times, 22 September 2003

  • Zoellick, R. B. (2004). Zoellick embarks on global push to make strong progress on Doha negotiations. Resource document. press release us trade representative robert zoellick, 8 February 2004. http://www.ustr.gov/archive/Document_Library/Press_Releases/2004/February/Zoellick_Embarks_on_Global_Push_to_Make_Strong_Progress_on_Doha_Negotiations.html. Accessed 15 June 2014

  • Zürn, M. (1992). Interessen und institutionen in der internationalen politik: grundlegung und anwendungen des situationsstrukturellen ansatzes. Opladen: Leske + Budrich.

    Book  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Geschwister-Scholl-Institute for Political Science, Ludwig-Maximilian-University Munich, Oettingenstr. 67, 80538, Munich, Germany

    Bernhard Zangl, Frederick Heußner, Andreas Kruck & Xenia Lanzendörfer

Authors
  1. Bernhard Zangl
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Frederick Heußner
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Andreas Kruck
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Xenia Lanzendörfer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bernhard Zangl.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Zangl, B., Heußner, F., Kruck, A. et al. Imperfect adaptation: how the WTO and the IMF adjust to shifting power distributions among their members. Rev Int Organ 11, 171–196 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11558-016-9246-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11558-016-9246-z

Keywords

JEL Classification

Search

Navigation