Skip to main content

When and why is civil society support “made-in-America”? Delegation to non-state actors in American democracy promotion

The Review of International Organizations volume 11, pages 361–385 (2016)Cite this article

Abstract

One of the United States’ main strategies of democracy promotion involves supporting civil society abroad. According to original data, most of the money spent by the United States on that task supports American NGOs working abroad rather than local NGOs in transitioning and non-democratic countries. Yet there are also significant variations across countries in donor officials’ reliance on American NGOs. Why do American donor officials fund American NGOs as a strategy of aiding democracy abroad more in some cases than in others? This paper argues that donor officials find it easier to observe American NGOs than other NGOs and that American NGOs are more likely to share donor officials’ preferences. Donor officials are therefore more likely to pursue a strategy of “made-in-America” democracy support in countries that are salient for U.S. foreign policy. Evidence from a new data set of democracy assistance programs supports the argument. The findings have implications for the study of American foreign policy, foreign aid effectiveness, and NGOs in world politics.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1

Notes

  1. NGOs are one of many forms of non-state actors in global governance. I follow Murdie (2014, 20–23) in defining NGOs as organizations that “are not states or controlled by states,” hold a “stated not-for-profit status,” and “are not formed for the expressed purpose of aiding one political candidate or cohesive set of political candidates.” Although some scholars prefer the term “private voluntary organization” (e.g., McClery 2001), I use the term “NGO” to be consistent with the literature on civil society support (e.g., Carothers and Ottaway 2000) and as well as the donor organization I study.

  2. According to the Foreign Assistance Dashboard, the U.S. Agency for International Development, which is the largest donor in American democracy assistance, obligated $261 million to aid civil society in 2011. The NED obligated $135 million to NGOs that year.

  3. See also McFaul (2010, 198).

  4. In addition, 66 % of the respondents indicated that the majority of their organizations’ annual budget came from these donors. The author acknowledges Joel Barkan’s assistance with accessing data from the surveys he conducted for the World Movement for Democracy in 2009 and 2010. See Barkan (2012).

  5. It is important to note that other research takes more a dismal view of the effects of NGO competition. Cooley and Ron (2002, 16) argue, for example, that competition for aid contracts can cause NGOs to focus more on securing funding than on “ethics, program efficacy, and self-criticism.” In other words, although competitive bidding may result in more information about program activities, it does not necessarily lead to more effective programs.

  6. NGOs funded by the NED occasionally further delegate to other NGOs. Anecdotally, privileged NGOs are more likely to re-delegate than non-privileged NGOs, which may make them even more likely to engage in agency slack. As such, testing Hypothesis 2 explores these further delegation dynamics.

  7. Non-American, non-local NGOs implement less than 5 % of projects. A more nuanced coding scheme that accounted for staff nationality would be desirable but is impossible owing to lack of data.

  8. This principle can be used to identify privileged NGOs for other donors and other types of foreign assistance. For example, USAID introduced an explicit policy in 1995 whereby three NGOs—IRI, NDI, and IFES—became members of the Consortium for Elections and Political Process Strengthening (CEPPS) and therefore received priority funding in a variety of countries to implement programs related to elections and political processes.

  9. 2010 and 2011 are the only overlapping years for which these data are available.

  10. I take the natural log of the number of briefing mentions to account for skewness. As is customary, I added one first to eliminate zeroes.

  11. I summarize those additional findings here. First, formal alliances in the previous year (Gibler 2009) are not related to Proportion American. Since few countries have formal alliances with the United States in my dataset—and important strategic partners such as Bahrain, Jordan, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia are not formal allies—I do not find the lack of a significant relationship surprising. In other words, formal alliance does not seem to be a very good proxy for salience, as it does not count some important partners as well as important non-partners. Second, economic interdependence—measured using the natural log of the combined imports and exports from the United States (lagged) (Barbieri et al. 2009; Barbieri and Keshk 2012)—is positively and significantly related to the outcome variable. This relationship is more expected, since economically interdependent countries are likely to be relatively important in terms of U.S. foreign policy.

  12. I use these scores because donor officials use them but consider another measure of democracy (Polity) below.

  13. Note that Democrats controlled Congress throughout the study’s time period.

  14. Since matching requires a dichotomous treatment variable, I consider countries Salient if they received at least 30 briefing mentions, although the findings are robust to other cut-offs. The supplementary file shows that I obtain similar results while using the dichotomous measure of Salient with the unmatched sample. Another strategy would be to use a selection model. It is not possible, however, to identify factors that should affect whether the NED sends aid but not how it channels aid.

  15. First, I added a variable that equals one if the country’s official language is English and zero otherwise. Second, I included the total number of NED projects that country–year. Third, I added the natural log of the country’s GDP per capita, which also measures local NGOs’ capacity. Fourth, I added a variable that equals one if the country experienced civil war since 2000 and zero otherwise (Gleditsch et al. 2002; Themnér and Wallensteen 2014).

  16. This analysis is pertinent because the presence of local NGOs within countries could influence donor officials’ likelihood of funding American NGOs. Unfortunately, I am aware of no dataset that records the number of domestic NGOs in countries over time. For example, the Yearbook of International Organizations records information about international NGOs only—not domestic NGOs. Looking at legal restrictions against foreign funding of local NGOs therefore offers some insight into the availability of local NGOs as potential funding recipients.

  17. First, I added the natural log of the total disaster-affected population in the country in the previous year, drawing on data from EM-DAT, the International Disaster Database (Guha-Sapir et al. 2015). Next, I added a dichotomous variable that equals one if the country experienced a civil war in the previous year and zero otherwise, drawing on data from the UCDP/PRIO Armed Conflict Dataset (Gleditsch et al. 2002; Themnér and Wallensteen 2014). I do not control for whether the country experienced an interstate war in the previous year because no countries in my sample experienced such a conflict according to the UCDP/PRIO Armed Conflict Dataset.

References

  • Barbieri, K. & Keshk, O. (2012). Correlates of war project trade data set codebook, version 3.0. Online: http://correlatesofwar.org.

  • Barbieri, K., Keshk, O., & Pollins, B. (2009). Trading data: evaluating our assumptions and coding rules. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 26(5), 471–491.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barkan, J. D. (2012). Democracy assistance: what recipients think. Journal of Democracy, 23(1), 129–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnett, M. N., & Finnemore, M. (1999). The politics, power, and pathologies of international organizations. International Organization, 53(4), 699–732.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnett, M. N., & Weiss, T. G. (2008). Humanitarianism: A brief history of the present. In M. N. Barnett & T. G. Weiss (Eds.), Humanitarianism in question: Politics, power, ethics (pp. 1–48). Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bob, C. (2005). The marketing of rebellion: Insurgents, media, and international activism. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Brancati, D. (2014). The determinants of U.S. public opinion towards democracy promotion. Political Behavior, 36(4), 705–730.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buch, B., Buntaine, M, & Parks, B. (2015). Aiming at the wrong targets: the difficulty of improving domestic institutions with international aid. Unpublished manuscript.

  • Bunce, V. J., & Wolchik, S. L. (2011). Defeating authoritarian leaders in post-communist countries. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bunce, V. J., & Wolchik, S. L. (2012). Concepts of democracy among donors and recipients of democracy promotion. In C. Hobson & M. Kurki (Eds.), The conceptual politics of democracy promotion (pp. 151–170). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buntaine, M. (2015). Accountability in global governance: civil society claims for environmental performance at the world bank. International Studies Quarterly, 59(1), 99–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bush, S. S. (2011). International politics and the spread of quotas for women in legislatures. International Organization, 65(1), 103–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bush, S. S. (2015). The taming of democracy assistance: Why democracy promotion does not confront dictators. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bush, S. S., & Jamal, A. (2015). Anti-Americanism, authoritarian regimes, and women’s political representation: evidence from a survey experiment in Jordan. International Studies Quarterly, 59(1), 34–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Büthe, T., & Mattli, W. (2011). The new global rulers: The privatization of regulation in the world economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Carothers, T. (1999). Aiding democracy abroad: The learning curve. Washington: Carnegie Endowment.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carothers, T. (2009). Democracy assistance: political vs. developmental? Journal of Democracy, 20(1), 5–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carothers, T., & Ottaway, M. (2000). The burgeoning world of civil society aid. In M. Ottaway & T. Carothers (Eds.), Funding virtue: Civil society aid and democracy promotion (pp. 3–20). Washington: Carnegie Endowment.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carr, C., McWha, I., MacLachlan, M., & Furnham, A. (2010). International–local remuneration differences across six countries: do they undermine poverty reduction work? International Journal of Psychology, 45(3), 321–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christensen, D., & Weinstein, J. (2013). Defunding dissent: restrictions on aid to NGOs. Journal of Democracy, 24(2), 77–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cloward, K. (2014). False commitments: local misrepresentation and the international norms against female genital mutilation and early marriage. International Organization, 68(3), 495–526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coles, K. A. (2007). Democratic designs: International intervention and electoral practices in post-war Bosnia-Herzegovina. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conry, B. (1993). Loose cannon: The national endowment for democracy. Cato foreign policy briefing no. 27. Washington: Cato Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooley, A., & Ron, J. (2002). The NGO scramble: organizational insecurity and the political economy of transnational action. International Security, 27(1), 5–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corn, D. (1993). Beltway bandits: better dead than NED. The Nation, 56–57.

  • Dietrich, S. (2013). Bypass or engage? Explaining donor delivery tactics in foreign aid allocation. International Studies Quarterly, 57(4), 698–712.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dreher, A. (2006). Does globalization affect growth? Evidence from a new index of globalization. Applied Economics, 33(10), 1091–1110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dupuy, K., Ron, J. & Prakash, A. (2015). Who survived? Ethiopia’s regulatory crackdown on foreign-funded NGOs.” The Review of International Political Economy forthcoming.

  • Finkel, S. E., Pérez-Liñán, A., & Seligson, M. A. (2007). The effects of U.S. foreign assistance on democracy building, 1990–2003. World Politics, 59(3), 404–439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finnemore, M., & Sikkink, K. (1998). International norm dynamics and political change. International Organization, 52(4), 887–917.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gartzke, E. (1998). Kant we all just get along? Opportunity, willingness, and the origins of the democratic peace. American Journal of Political Science, 42(1), 1–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giannone, D. (2010). Political and ideological aspects in the measurement of democracy: the freedom house case. Democratization, 17(1), 68–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gibler, D. M. (2009). International military alliances, 1648–2008. Washington: CQ Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Gleditsch, N. P., Wallensteen, P., Eriksson, M., Sollenberg, M., & Strand, H. (2002). Armed conflict 1946–2002: a new dataset. Journal of Peace Research, 45(5), 697–710.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, J. F. (2013). Rethinking private authority: Agents and entrepreneurs in global environmental governance. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Guha-Sapir, D., Below, R. & Hoyois, P. (2015). EM-DAT: International disaster database. Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium. http://www.emdat.be.

  • Guilhot, N. (2005). The democracy makers: Human rights and international order. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haas, P. M. (1989). Do regimes matter? Epistemic communities and Mediterranean pollution control. International Organization, 43(3), 377–403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haass, R. N. (2005). The opportunity: America’s moment to alter history’s course. New York: PublicAffairs.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haring, M. A. (2013). Reforming the democracy bureaucracy. Philadelphia: Foreign Policy Research Institute. http:// www.fpri.org/ articles/ 2013/ 06/ reforming-democracy-bureaucracy.

  • Hawkins, D. G., Lake, D. A., Nielson, D. L., & Tierney, M. J. (2006). Delegation under anarchy: States, international organizations and principal–agent theory. In D. G. Hawkins, D. A. Lake, D. L. Nielson, & M. J. Tierney (Eds.), Delegation and agency in international organizations (pp. 3–38). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, S. L. (2002). Selling civil society: western aid and the nongovernmental organization sector in Russia. Comparative Political Studies, 35(2), 139–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hobson, C., & Kurki, M. (2012). Introduction. In C. Hobson & M. Kurki (Eds.), The conceptual politics of democracy promotion (pp. 1–15). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • House, F. (2007–2011). Freedom in the world. Washington: Freedom House.

  • Howell, J., & Pearce, J. (2002). Civil society and development: A critical exploration. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hyde, S. D. (2011). Catch us if you can: election monitoring and international norm diffusion. American Journal of Political Science, 55(2), 356–369.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iacus, S. M., King, G., & Porro, G. (2012). Causal inference without balance checking: coarsened exact matching. Political Analysis, 20(1), 1–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jablonski, R. (2014). How aid targets votes: the impact of electoral incentives on foreign aid distribution. World Politics, 66(2), 293–330.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keck, M. (2014). Comparing the determinants of US-funded NGO aid versus US Official Development Aid. Voluntas forthcoming.

  • Keck, M. E., & Sikkink, K. (1998). Activists beyond borders: Advocacy networks in international politics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelley, J. (2009). D-minus elections: the politics and norms of international election observation. International Organization, 63(4), 765–787.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levitsky, S., & Way, L. A. (2005). International linkage and democratization. Journal of Democracy, 16(3), 20–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyne, M. M., Nielson, D. L., & Tierney, M. J. (2006). Who delegates? Alternative models of principals in development aid. In D. G. Hawkins, D. A. Lake, D. L. Nielson, & M. J. Tierney (Eds.), Delegation and agency in international organizations (pp. 41–76). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, M. G., Gurr, T. R., & Jaggers, K. (2013). Polity IV project: Political regime characteristics and transitions, 1800–2012. Dataset users’ manual. Vienna: Center for Systemic Peace.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martens, B., Mummert, U., Murrell, P., & Seabright, P. (2002). The institutional economics of foreign aid. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Matanock, A. (2015). Bullets for ballots: electoral participation provisions in peace agreements and conflict recurrence. Unpublished manuscript.

  • McClery, R. (2001). Global compassion: Private voluntary organizations and U.S. foreign policy since 1939. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McFaul, M. (2010). Advancing democracy abroad: Why we should and how we can. Lanham: Rowan & Littlefield.

    Google Scholar 

  • McInerney, S. (2012). Fayza Abul Naga and Cairo’s campaign against NGOs. Foreign Affairs Online. http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/137290/stephen-mcinerney/fayza-abul-naga-and-cairos-campaign-against-ngos.

  • McKoy, M. K., & Miller, M. K. (2012). The patron’s dilemma: the dynamics of foreign-supported democratization. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 56(5), 904–932.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McWha, I. (2011). The roles of, and relationships between, expatriates, volunteers, and local development workers. Development in Practice, 21(1), 29–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Melia, T. O. (2005). The democracy bureaucracy: The infrastructure of American democracy promotion. Princeton Project on National Security, Princeton University, Princeton, N.J. http://www.princeton.edu/~ppns/papers/democracy_bureaucracy.pdf.

  • Mendelson, S. E., & Glenn, J. K. (2002). The power and limits of NGOs: A critical look at building democracy in Eastern Europe and Eurasia. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merritt, J. (2006). Quick impact, slow recovery? Funder’s priorities and the local realities of transition programming. In K. Brown (Ed.), Transacting transition: The micropolitics of democracy assistance in the former Yugoslavia (pp. 27–44). Bloomfield: Kumarian Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milner, H. V., & Tingley, D. (2010). The political economy of U.S. foreign aid: American legislators and the domestic politics of aid. Economics and Politics, 22(2), 200–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milner, H. V., & Tingley, D. (2013). The choice for multilateralism: foreign aid and American foreign policy. The Review of International Organizations, 8(3), 313–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, L. A. (2012). The color revolutions. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Murdie, A. (2014). Help or harm: The human security effects of international NGOs. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • National Endowment for Democracy. (2007–2011). Annual reports for 2007–2011. Washington: National Endowment for Democracy.

  • National Research Council, Committee on Evaluation of USAID Democracy Assistance Programs. (2008).

  • Nielsen, R. & Simmons, B. (2015). Rewards for ratification: payoffs for participating in the international human rights regime? International Studies Quarterly forthcoming.

  • Nielson, D. L., & Tierney, M. J. (2003). Delegation to international organizations: agency theory and world bank environmental reform. International Organization, 57(2), 241–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nuti, P. (2006). Toward reflective practice: Understanding and negotiating democracy in Macedonia. In K. Brown (Ed.), Transacting transition: The micropolitics of democracy assistance in the former Yugoslavia. Bloomfield: Kumarian Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ottaway, M., & Carothers, T. (2000). Toward civil society realism. In M. Ottaway & T. Carothers (Eds.), Funding virtue: Civil society aid and democracy promotion (pp. 293–310). Washington: Carnegie Endowment.

    Google Scholar 

  • Papke, L. E., & Wooldridge, J. M. (1996). Econometric methods for fractional response variables with an application to 401(K) plan participation rates. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 11(6), 619–632.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pollack, M. A. (1997). Delegation, agency, and agenda setting in the European community. International Organization, 51(1), 99–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Program on Evaluating International Influences on Democratic Development at Stanford University. (2010). Democracy promotion organizations in the United States. Freedom Spogli Institute, Stanford University. http://fsi.stanford.edu/docs/democracy_promotion_organizations_in_the_united_states/.

  • Provost, C. (2012). USAid now free to buy goods from companies in poor countries. The Guardian Online. http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/datablog/2012/sep/21/why-is-uk-aid-going-to-uk-companies.

  • Rieff, D. (2002). A bed for the night: Humanitarianism in crisis. New York: Simon & Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, W. I. (1996). Promoting polyarchy: Globalization, U.S. intervention, and hegemony. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Savun, B., & Tirone, D. (2011). Foreign aid, democratization, and civil conflict: how does democracy aid affect civil conflict? American Journal of Political Science, 55(2), 233–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitz, H. P. (2004). Domestic and transnational perspectives on democratization. International Studies Review, 6(3), 403–426.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, J. M., & Steele, C. A. (2005). Assisting democrats or resisting dictators: the nature and impact of democracy support by the national endowment for democracy, 1990–1999. Democratization, 12(4), 439–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, J. M., & Steele, C. A. (2011). Sponsoring democracy: the United States and democracy aid to the developing world, 1988–2001. International Studies Quarterly, 55(1), 47–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sell, S. K., & Prakash, A. (2004). Using ideas strategically: the contest between business and NGO networks in intellectual property rights. International Studies Quarterly, 48(1), 143–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simbi, M., & Thom, G. (2000). Implementation by proxy: The next step in power relationships between northern and southern NGOs. In D. Lewis & T. Wallace (Eds.), New roles and relevance: Development NGOs and the challenge of change (pp. 213–222). Bloomfield: Kumarian Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stroup, S. S. (2012). Borders among activists: International NGOs in the United States, Britain, and France. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sundstrom, L. M. (2005). Foreign assistance, international norms, and NGO development: lessons from the Russian campaign. International Organization, 59(2), 419–449.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Themnér, L., & Wallensteen, P. (2014). Armed conflicts, 1946–2013. Journal of Peace Research, 51(4), 541–554.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tingley, D. (2010). Donors and domestic politics: political influences on foreign aid effort. The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finances, 50(1), 40–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • United States Agency for International Development. (2012). U.S. overseas loans and grants: Obligations and loan authorizations, July 1, 1945–September 30, 2012. Greenbook. Washington: United States Agency for International Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • Usatin, R. (2013). Evaluation of democracy assistance grantmaking. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wedel, J. (2001). Collision and collusion: The strange case of Western aid to Eastern Europe. New York: Palgrave for St. Martin’s Griffin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinthal, E., & Luong, P. (2002). Environmental NGOs in Kazakhstan: Democratic goals and nondemocratic outcomes. In S. E. Mendelson & J. K. Glenn (Eds.), The power and limits of NGOs: A critical look at building democracy in Eastern Europe and Eurasia (pp. 152–176). New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

I thank Rob Brown, Simone Dietrich, Jennifer Dixon, Andrea Everett, Erin Graham, Jessica Green, Jennifer Hadden, Andrew Little, Aila Matanock, Tsveta Petrova, Mark Pollack, Hillel Soifer, Sarah Stroup, Dustin Tingley, Felicity Vabulas, Yael Zeira, three anonymous reviewers, and participants at a workshop at the University of Pennsylvania for feedback on earlier versions of this article. I also thank Charlotte Myer for her excellent research assistance.

Ethical Statement

The author certifies that this manuscript is in compliance with the “Ethical Responsibilities of Authors” statement provided by The Review of International Organizations.

Conflict of Interest

The author has no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Political Science, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA

    Sarah Sunn Bush

Authors
  1. Sarah Sunn Bush
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sarah Sunn Bush.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

ESM 1

(ZIP 160 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Bush, S.S. When and why is civil society support “made-in-America”? Delegation to non-state actors in American democracy promotion. Rev Int Organ 11, 361–385 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11558-015-9234-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11558-015-9234-8

Keywords

  • Non-governmental organizations
  • Democracy promotion
  • Civil society
  • Delegation
  • American foreign policy