Abstract
Due to the sensitive nature of diabetes-related data, preventing them from being easily shared between studies, and the wide discrepancies in their data processing pipeline, progress in the field of glucose prediction is hard to assess. To address this issue, we introduce GLYFE (GLYcemia Forecasting Evaluation), a benchmark of machine learning-based glucose predictive models. We present the accuracy and clinical acceptability of nine different models coming from the literature, from standard autoregressive to more complex neural network-based models. These results are obtained on two different datasets, namely UVA/Padova Type 1 Diabetes Metabolic Simulator (T1DMS) and Ohio Type-1 Diabetes Mellitus (OhioT1DM), featuring artificial and real type 1 diabetic patients respectively. By providing extensive details about the data flow as well as by providing the whole source code of the benchmarking process, we ensure the reproducibility of the results and the usability of the benchmark by the community. Those results serve as a basis of comparison for future studies. In a field where data are hard to obtain, and where the comparison of results from different studies is often irrelevant, GLYFE gives the opportunity of gathering researchers around a standardized common environment.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Euglycemia is the glycemia region between hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia, or between 70 and 180 mg/dL.
References
World Health Organization et al (2016) Global report on diabetes. World Health Organization
Ólafsdóttir AF, Attvall S, Sandgren U, Dahlqvist S, Pivodic A, Skrtic S, Theodorsson E, Lind M (2017) A clinical trial of the accuracy and treatment experience of the flash glucose monitor freestyle libre in adults with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Technol Therapeut 19(3):164–172
Rose K, Koenig M, Wiesbauer F (2013) Evaluating success for behavioral change in diabetes via mhealth and gamification: Mysugr’s keys to retention and patient engagement. Diabetes Technol Therapeut 15:A114
Bequette BW (2012) Challenges and recent progress in the development of a closed-loop artificial pancreas. Ann Rev Control 36(2):255–266
Man CD, Micheletto F, Lv D, Breton M, Kovatchev B, Cobelli C (2014) The uva/padova type 1 diabetes simulator: new features. J Diabetes Sci Technol 8(1):26–34
Marling C, Bunescu RC (2018) The ohiot1dm dataset for blood glucose level prediction. In: KHD@ IJCAI, pp 60–63
Oviedo S, Vehí J, Calm R, Armengol J (2017) A review of personalized blood glucose prediction strategies for t1dm patients. Int J Numer Methods Biomed Eng 33(6):e2833
Huzooree G, Khedo KK, Joonas N (2017) Glucose prediction data analytics for diabetic patients monitoring, pp 188–195
Woldaregay AZ, Årsand E, Walderhaug S, Albers D, Mamykina L, Botsis T, Hartvigsen G (2019) Data-driven modeling and prediction of blood glucose dynamics: Machine learning applications in type 1 diabetes. Artif Intell Med 98:109–134
Kovatchev BP, Breton M, Dalla Man C, Cobelli C (2009) In silico preclinical trials: a proof of concept in closed-loop control of type 1 diabetes. J Diabetes Sci Technol
Ruedy KJ, Beck RW, Xing D, Kollman C (2007) Diabetes research in children network: availability of protocol data sets. J Diabetes Sci Technol 1(5):738–745
J. C. for Health Research. Study information. [Online]. Available: http://direcnet.jaeb.org/Studies.aspx
Bazaev NA, Pozhar KV (2017) Blood glucose predir ”artificial pancreas” system. In: Gluconeogenesis InTech
Rudenko P, Bazaev N, Pozhar K, Litinskaia E, Grinvald V, Chekasin A (2018) Getting daily blood glucose tracks using clinical protocols of the direcnet database. Biomed Eng 51(5):346–349
Balakrishnan NP, Samavedham L, Rangaiah GP (2014) Personalized mechanistic models for exercise, meal and insulin interventions in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes. J Theoret Biol 357:62–73
Mhaskar HN, Pereverzyev SV, van der Walt MD (2017) A deep learning approach to diabetic blood glucose prediction. Front Appl Math Stat 3:14
Jones TW, Davis EA (2003) Hypoglycemia in children with type 1 diabetes: current issues and controversies. Pediat Diabetes 4(3):143–150
Kahn M Uci machine learning repository: Diabetes data set. [Online]. Available: https://archive.ics.uci.edu/ml/datasets/diabetes
Khan T, Masud M, Mamun KA (2017) Methods to predict blood glucose level for type 2 diabetes patients. In: Humanitarian technology conference (r10-HTC), 2017, IEEE Region 10. IEEE, pp 392–395
Aibinu A, Salami M, Shafie A (2010) Blood glucose level prediction using intelligent based modeling techniques
Tomczak JM (2016) Gaussian process regression with categorical inputs for predicting the blood glucose level, pp 98–108
Lehmann ED, Deutsch T Aida freeware diabetes software simulator program of glucose - insulin action. [Online]. Available: http://www.2aida.org/online/
Lehmann E, Deutsch T, Carson E, Sönksen P (1994) Aida: an interactive diabetes advisor. Comput Methods Prog Biomed 41(3-4):183–203
Hidalgo JI, Colmenar JM, Risco-Martin JL, Cuesta-Infante A, Maqueda E, Botella M, Rubio JA (2014) Modeling glycemia in humans by means of grammatical evolution. Appl Soft Comput 20:40–53
Reymann MP, Dorschky E, Groh BH, Martindale C, Blank P, Eskofier BM (2016) Blood glucose level prediction based on support vector regression using mobile platforms. In: 2016 IEEE 38th annual international conference of the engineering in medicine and biology society (EMBC). IEEE, pp 2990–2993
Assadi K, Hamdi T, Fnaiech F, Ginoux JM, Moreau E (2017) Estimation of blood glucose levels techniques. In: 2017 international conference on smart, monitored and controlled cities (SM2c). IEEE, pp 75–80
Bamgbose SO, Li X, Qian L (2017) Closed loop control of blood glucose level with neural network predictor for diabetic patients. In: IEEE 19th international conference on e-Health networking, applications and services (Healthcom), 2017. IEEE, pp 1–6
Mirshekarian S, Shen H, Bunescu R, Marling C (2019) Lstms and neural attention models for blood glucose prediction: Comparative experiments on real and synthetic data. In: 2019 41st annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society (EMBC). IEEE, pp 706–712
Wilinska ME, Chassin LJ, Acerini CL, Allen JM, Dunger DB, Hovorka R (2010) Simulation environment to evaluate closed-loop insulin delivery systems in type 1 diabetes. J Diabetes Sci Technol 4(1):132–144
Hovorka R, Canonico V, Chassin LJ, Haueter U, Massi-Benedetti M, Federici MO, Pieber TR, Schaller HC, Schaupp L, Vering T et al (2004) Nonlinear model predictive control of glucose concentration in subjects with type 1 diabetes. Physiol Meas 25(4):905
Laguna AJ, Rossetti P, Ampudia-Blasco FJ, Vehí J, Bondia J (2014) Experimental blood glucose interval identification of patients with type 1 diabetes. J Process Control 24(1):171–181
Szalay P, Benyó Z, Kovács L (2016) Long-term prediction for t1dm model during state-feedback control. In: 2016 12th IEEE international conference on control and automation (ICCA). IEEE, pp 311–316
Boiroux D, Duun-Henriksen AK, Schmidt S, Nørgaard K, Poulsen NK, Madsen H, Jørgensen JB (2017) Adaptive control in an artificial pancreas for people with type 1 diabetes. Control Eng Pract 58:332–342
Visentin R, Campos-Náñez E, Schiavon M, Lv D, Vettoretti M, Breton M, Kovatchev BP, Dalla Man C, Cobelli C (2018) The uva/padova type 1 diabetes simulator goes from single meal to single day. J Diabetes Sci Technol 12(2):273–281
Laguna Sanz AJ, Doyle III FJ, Dassau E (2017) An enhanced model predictive control for the artificial pancreas using a confidence index based on residual analysis of past predictions. J Diabetes Sci Technol 11(3):537–544
Turksoy K, Samadi S, Feng J, Littlejohn E, Quinn L, Cinar A (2016) Meal detection in patients with type 1 diabetes: a new module for the multivariable adaptive artificial pancreas control system. IEEE J Biomed Health Inform 20(1):47–54
Feng J, Turksoy K, Cinar A (2016) Performance assessment of model-based artificial pancreas control systems. In: Prediction methods for blood glucose concentration. Springer, pp 243–265
Li C, Zhao C, Zhao H, Yu C (2017) Blood glucose control based on rapid model identification with particle swarm optimization method. In: 29th Chinese control and decision conference (CCDC), 2017. IEEE, pp 947–952
Contreras I, Oviedo S, Vettoretti M, Visentin R, Vehí J (2017) Personalized blood glucose prediction: A hybrid approach using grammatical evolution and physiological models. PloS One 12 (11):e0187754
Contreras I, Vehí J, Visentin R, Vettoretti M (2017) A hybrid clustering prediction for type 1 diabetes aid: towards decision support systems based upon scenario profile analysis. In: Proceedings of the second IEEE/ACM international conference on connected health: applications, systems and engineering technologies. IEEE Press, pp 64–69
Zhao H, Zhao C, Yu C, Dassau E (2018) Multiple order model migration and optimal model selection for online glucose prediction in type 1 diabetes. AIChE J 64(3):822–834
Yu X, Turksoy K, Rashid M, Feng J, Hobbs N, Hajizadeh I, Samadi S, Sevil M, Lazaro C, Maloney Z et al (2018) Model-fusion-based online glucose concentration predictions in people with type 1 diabetes. Control Eng Pract 71:129–141
Zecchin C, Facchinetti A, Sparacino G, De Nicolao G, Cobelli C (2012) Neural network incorporating meal information improves accuracy of short-time prediction of glucose concentration. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 59(6):1550–1560
Sun X, Yu X, Liu J, Wang H (2017) Glucose prediction for type 1 diabetes using klms algorithm. In: 2017 36th Chines control conference (CCC). IEEE, pp 1124–1128
Sun Q, Jankovic MV, Bally L, Mougiakakou SG (2018) Predicting blood glucose with an lstm and bi-lstm based deep neural network. In: 2018 14th symposium on neural networks and applications (NEUREL), pp 1–5
Vehí J, Contreras I, Oviedo S, Biagi L, Bertachi A (2019) Prediction and prevention of hypoglycaemic events in type-1 diabetic patients using machine learning. Health Inf J: 1460458219850682
Li K, Liu C, Zhu T, Herrero P, Georgiou P (2019) Glunet: A deep learning framework for accurate glucose forecasting. IEEE J Biomed Health Inf
Zhu T, Li K, Herrero P, Chen J, Georgiou P (2018) A deep learning algorithm for personalized blood glucose prediction. In: KHD@ IJCAI, pp 64–78
Bertachi A, Biagi L, Contreras I, Luo N, Vehí J (2018) Prediction of blood glucose levels and nocturnal hypoglycemia using physiological models and artificial neural networks. In: KHD@ IJCAI, pp 85–90
Contreras I, Bertachi A, Biagi L, Vehí J, Oviedo S (2018) Using grammatical evolution to generate short-term blood glucose prediction models. In: KHD@ IJCAI, pp 91–96
Midroni C, Leimbigler PJ, Baruah G, Kolla M, Whitehead AJ, Fossat Y (2018) Predicting glycemia in type 1 diabetes patients:, experiments with xgboost. Heart 60(90):120
Jeon J, Leimbigler PJ, Baruah G, Li MH, Fossat Y, Whitehead AJ (2019) Predicting glycaemia in type 1 diabetes patients: Experiments in feature engineering and data imputation. J Healthcare Inf Res: 1–20
Mayo M, Chepulis L, Paul RG (2019) Glycemic-aware metrics and oversampling techniques for predicting blood glucose levels using machine learning. PloS One 12:14
De Bois M, El Yacoubi MA, Ammi M (2019) Prediction-coherent lstm-based recurrent neural network for safer glucose predictions in diabetic people. In: International conference on neural information processing. Springer, pp 510–521
Martinsson J, Schliep A, Eliasson B, Mogren O (2019) Blood glucose prediction with variance estimation using recurrent neural networks. J Healthcare Inf Res 1–18
Akbari M, Chunara R (2019) Using contextual information to improve blood glucose prediction. arXiv:1909.01735
Dalla Man C, Rizza RA, Cobelli C (2007) Meal simulation model of the glucose-insulin system. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 54(10):1740–1749
Bergman RN, Ider YZ, Bowden CR, Cobelli C (1979) Quantitative estimation of insulin sensitivity. Amer J Physiol Endocrinol Metabol 236(6):E667
Bergman RN (2005) Minimal model: perspective from 2005. Hormone Res Paediat 164(Suppl. 3):8–15
Calm R, García-Jaramillo M, Bondia J, Sainz M, Vehí J (2011) Comparison of interval and monte carlo simulation for the prediction of postprandial glucose under uncertainty in type 1 diabetes mellitus. Comput Methods Prog Biomed 104(3):325–332
Duun-Henriksen AK, Schmidt S, Røge RM, Møller JB, Nørgaard K, Jørgensen JB, Madsen H (2013) Model identification using stochastic differential equation grey-box models in diabetes. J Diabetes Sci Technol 7(2):431–440
Sparacino G, Zanderigo F, Corazza S, Maran A, Facchinetti A, Cobelli C (2007) Glucose concentration can be predicted ahead in time from continuous glucose monitoring sensor time-series. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 54(5):931–937
Eren-Oruklu M, Cinar A, Quinn L, Smith D (2009) Estimation of future glucose concentrations with subject-specific recursive linear models. Diabetes Technol Therap 11(4):243–253
Eren-Oruklu M, Cinar A, Rollins DK, Quinn L (2012) Adaptive system identification for estimating future glucose concentrations and hypoglycemia alarms. Automatica 48(8):1892–1897
Yang J, Li L, Shi Y, Xie X (2018) An arima model with adaptive orders for predicting blood glucose concentrations and hypoglycemia. IEEE J Biomed Health Inf
Daskalaki E, Nørgaard K, Züger T, Prountzou A, Diem P, Mougiakakou S (2013) An early warning system for hypoglycemic/hyperglycemic events based on fusion of adaptive prediction models. J Diabetes Sci Technol 7(3):689–698
Jankovic MV, Mosimann S, Bally L, Stettler C, Mougiakakou S (2016) Deep prediction model:, The case of online adaptive prediction of subcutaneous glucose 1–5
Wang Q, Molenaar P, Harsh S, Freeman K, Xie J, Gold C, Rovine M, Ulbrecht J (2014) Personalized state-space modeling of glucose dynamics for type 1 diabetes using continuously monitored glucose, insulin dose, and meal intake: an extended kalman filter approach. J Diabetes Sci Technol 8 (2):331–345
Macas M, Lhotska L, Stechova K, Pithova P, Saiti K (2017) Particle swarm optimization based adaptable predictor of glycemia values. In: 2017 3rd IEEE international conference on cybernetics (CYBCONF). IEEE, pp 1–6
Novara C, Pour NM, Vincent T, Grassi G (2016) A nonlinear blind identification approach to modeling of diabetic patients. IEEE Trans Control Syst Technol 24(3):1092–1100
Zarkogianni K, Mitsis K, Litsa E, Arredondo M-T, Fico G, Fioravanti A, Nikita KS (2015) Comparative assessment of glucose prediction models for patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus applying sensors for glucose and physical activity monitoring. Med Biol Eng Comput 53(12):1333–1343
Georga EI, Protopappas VC, Ardigò D, Polyzos D, Fotiadis DI (2013) A glucose model based on support vector regression for the prediction of hypoglycemic events under free-living conditions. Diabetes Technol Therap 15(8):634–643
Ali JB, Hamdi T, Fnaiech N, Di Costanzo V, Fnaiech F, Ginoux J-M (2018) Continuous blood glucose level prediction of type 1 diabetes based on artificial neural network. Biocybern Biomed Eng 38(4):828–840
Sandham W, Nikoletou D, Hamilton D, Paterson K, Japp A, MacGregor C (1998) Blood glucose prediction for diabetes therapy using a recurrent artificial neural network. In: 9th European signal processing conference (EUSIPCO 1998). IEEE, pp 1–4
Fiorini S, Martini C, Malpassi D, Cordera R, Maggi D, Verri A, Barla A (2017) Data-driven strategies for robust forecast of continuous glucose monitoring time-series. In: 2017 39th annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society (EMBC). IEEE, pp 1680–1683
Mirshekarian S, Bunescu R, Marling C, Schwartz F (2017) Using lstms to learn physiological models of blood glucose behavior. In: 2017 39th annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society (EMBC). IEEE, pp 2887–2891
Gers FA, Schmidhuber J, Cummins F (1999) Learning to forget: Continual prediction with lstm
Huang G-B, Zhu Q-Y, Siew C-K (2004) Extreme learning machine: a new learning scheme of feedforward neural networks. In: IEEE International Joint Conference on Neural Networks, 2004. Proceedings 2004, vol 2. IEEE, pp 985–990
Pao Y-H, Park G-H, Sobajic DJ (1994) Learning and generalization characteristics of the random vector functional-link net. Neurocomputing 6(2):163–180
Georga EI, Protopappas VC, Polyzos D, Fotiadis DI (2015) Online prediction of glucose concentration in type 1 diabetes using extreme learning machines. In: 2015 37th annual international conference of the engineering in medicine and biology society (EMBC). IEEE, pp 3262–3265
Ling SH, San PP, Nguyen HT (2016) Non-invasive hypoglycemia monitoring system using extreme learning machine for type 1 diabetes. ISA Trans 64:440–446
Zecchin C, Facchinetti A, Sparacino G, Cobelli C (2014) Jump neural network for online short-time prediction of blood glucose from continuous monitoring sensors and meal information. Comput Methods Prog Biomed 113(1):144–152
Li K, Daniels J, Liu C, Herrero-Vinas P, Georgiou P (2019) Convolutional recurrent neural networks for glucose prediction. IEEE J Biomed Health Inf
Zhu T, Li K, Chen J, Herrero P, Georgiou P (2020) Dilated recurrent neural networks for glucose forecasting in type 1 diabetes. J Healthcare Inf Res 4(3):308–324
De Bois M, El Yacoubi MA, Ammi M (2021) Adversarial multi-source transfer learning in healthcare: Application to glucose prediction for diabetic people. Comput Methods Prog Biomed 199:105874
Li N, Tuo J, Wang Y (2018) Chaotic time series analysis approach for prediction blood glucose concentration based on echo state networks. In: 2018 Chinese control and decision conference (CCDC). IEEE, pp 2017–2022
Hofmann T, Schölkopf B, Smola AJ (2008) Kernel methods in machine learning. Ann Stat 1171–1220
De Paula M, Avila LO, Martinez EC (2015) Controlling blood glucose variability under uncertainty using reinforcement learning and gaussian processes. Appl Soft Comput 35:310–332
Bunescu R, Struble N, Marling C, Shubrook J, Schwartz F (2013) Blood glucose level prediction using physiological models and support vector regression. In: 12th international conference on machine learning and applications (ICMLA), 2013, vol 1. IEEE, pp 135–140
Georga EI, Protopappas VC, Ardigò D, Marina M, Zavaroni I, Polyzos D, Fotiadis DI (2013) Multivariate prediction of subcutaneous glucose concentration in type 1 diabetes patients based on support vector regression. IEEE J Biomed Health Inf 17(1):71–81
Hamdi T, Ali JB, Di Costanzo V, Fnaiech F, Moreau E, Ginoux J-M (2018) Accurate prediction of continuous blood glucose based on support vector regression and differential evolution algorithm. Biocybern Biomed Eng 38(2):362–372
Naumova V, Nita L, Poulsen JU, Pereverzyev SV (2016) Meta-learning based blood glucose predictor for diabetic smartphone app. In: Prediction methods for blood glucose concentration. Springer, pp 93–105
Yu X, Rashid M, Feng J, Hobbs N, Hajizadeh I, Samadi S, Sevil M, Lazaro C, Maloney Z, Littlejohn E et al (2018) Online glucose prediction using computationally efficient sparse kernel filtering algorithms in type-1 diabetes. IEEE Trans Control Syst Technol 99:1–13
Georga EI, Principe JC, Polyzos D, Fotiadis DI (2016) Non-linear dynamic modeling of glucose in type 1 diabetes with kernel adaptive filters. In: 2016 IEEE 38th annual international conference of the engineering in medicine and biology society (EMBC). IEEE, pp 5897–5900
Georga EI, Príncipe JC, Rizos EC, Fotiadis DI (2017) Kernel-based adaptive learning improves accuracy of glucose predictive modelling in type 1 diabetes:, A proof-of-concept study. In: 2017 39th annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society (EMBC). IEEE, pp 2765–2768
Georga EI, Príncipe JC, Fotiadis DI (2019) Short-term prediction of glucose in type 1 diabetes using kernel adaptive filters. Med Biol Eng Comput 57(1):27–46
Zecchin C, Facchinetti A, Sparacino G, Dalla Man C, Manohar C, Levine JA, Basu A, Kudva YC, Cobelli C (2013) Physical activity measured by physical activity monitoring system correlates with glucose trends reconstructed from continuous glucose monitoring. Diabetes Technol Therap 15(10):836–844
Mougiakakou SG, Prountzou A, Iliopoulou D, Nikita KS, Vazeou A, Bartsocas CS (2006) Neural network based glucose-insulin metabolism models for children with type 1 diabetes. In: 28th annual international conference of the engineering in medicine and biology society, 2006. EMBS’06. IEEE, pp 3545–3548
Daskalaki E, Prountzou A, Diem P, Mougiakakou SG (2012) Real-time adaptive models for the personalized prediction of glycemic profile in type 1 diabetes patients. Diabetes Technol Therap 14 (2):168–174
Zarkogianni K, Vazeou A, Mougiakakou SG, Prountzou A, Nikita KS (2011) An insulin infusion advisory system based on autotuning nonlinear model-predictive control. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 58 (9):2467–2477
Sparacino G, Zanderigo F, Maran A, Cobelli C (2006) Continuous glucose monitoring and hypo/hyperglycaemia prediction. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 74:S160–S163
De Bois M, El Yacoubi MA, Ammi M Study of short-term personalized glucose predictive models on type-1 diabetic children, accepted at IJCNN 2019, date to be determined
Klambauer G, Unterthiner T, Mayr A, Hochreiter S (2017) Self-normalizing neural networks. In: Advances in neural information processing systems, pp 971–980
Kingma DP, Ba J (2014) Adam: A method for stochastic optimization. arXiv:1412.6980
Gani A, Gribok AV, Rajaraman S, Ward WK, Reifman J (2009) Predicting subcutaneous glucose concentration in humans: data-driven glucose modeling. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 56(2):246
Facchinetti A, Sparacino G, Trifoglio E, Cobelli C (2011) A new index to optimally design and compare continuous glucose monitoring glucose prediction algorithms. Diabetes Technol Therap 13(2):111–119
Kovatchev BP, Gonder-Frederick LA, Cox DJ, Clarke WL (2004) Evaluating the accuracy of continuous glucose-monitoring sensors: continuous glucose–error grid analysis illustrated by therasense freestyle navigator data. Diabetes Care 27(8):1922–1928
Clarke WL (2005) The original clarke error grid analysis (ega). Diabetes Technol Therap 7 (5):776–779
Parkes JL, Slatin SL, Pardo S, Ginsberg BH (2000) A new consensus error grid to evaluate the clinical significance of inaccuracies in the measurement of blood glucose. Diabetes Care 23(8):1143–1148
De Bois M Glyfe 2019, doi:https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3497408. [Online]. Available: https://github.com/dotXem/GLYFE
Pedregosa F, Varoquaux G, Gramfort A, Michel V, Thirion B, Grisel O, Blondel M, Prettenhofer P, Weiss R, Dubourg V et al (2011) Scikit-learn: Machine learning in python. J Mach Learn Res 12(Oct):2825–2830
McKinney W, Perktold J, Seabold S (2011) Time series analysis in python with statsmodels. Jarrodmillman Com 96–102
Paszke A, Gross S, Chintala S, Chanan G, Yang E, DeVito Z, Lin Z, Desmaison A, Antiga L, Lerer A (2017) Automatic differentiation in pytorch
Gers FA, Eck D, Schmidhuber J (2002) Applying lstm to time series predictable through time-window approaches. In: Neural nets WIRN Vietri-01. Springer, pp 193–200
Funding
This work is supported by the “IDI 2017” project funded by the IDEX Paris-Saclay, ANR-11-IDEX-0003-02.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
De Bois, M., Yacoubi, M.A.E. & Ammi, M. GLYFE: review and benchmark of personalized glucose predictive models in type 1 diabetes. Med Biol Eng Comput 60, 1–17 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11517-021-02437-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11517-021-02437-4