Background

Adolescence is characterized by physical, social, and emotional changes that, along with contextual factors like exposure to abuse and violence, can contribute to vulnerability to suffering from a mental disorder (Tottenham & Galván, 2016; World Health Organization, WHO, 2022). According to a recent study with adolescents in 84 countries, 14 percent of adolescents worldwide endure mental health diseases and the majority do not receive due recognition and treatment (Biswas et al., 2020). Adolescents at higher risk for depression, anxiety, or eating disorders are especially prone to reduced physical health, educational difficulties, social stigma, and suicidal ideation (Ferguson et al., 2005; Runcan, 2020; WHO, 2022). Suicidal behavior is the fourth leading cause of death among adolescents in the world. Therefore, suicidal ideation and attempts have emerged as a public concern compelling intensive effort to learn how to prevent them (WHO, 2022). The interpersonal-psychological theory of suicidal behavior highlights that the joint presence of two risk factors—namely, thwarted belongingness (i.e., unfulfilled need to belong) and perceived burdensomeness (i.e., unfulfilled need to participate in the wellbeing of significant others)—is likely to result in a very harmful form of suicidal desire (Van Orden et al., 2008). In contrast, emotional skills such as coping strategies and mood regulation abilities, and contextual factors such as perceived social support, contribute to prevent these conditions and promote indicators of wellbeing (Gaynor et al., 2023; Wasserman et al., 2021).

Life satisfaction has been defined as a subjective evaluation of one's own quality of life in general or in specific domains (Diener et al., 1999). Longitudinal studies revealed that lower levels of life satisfaction predicted externalizing and internalizing conducts and peer victimization episodes, whereas high levels of life satisfaction predicted lower probability of exhibiting future externalizing conducts after enduring significant life stressors among adolescents (Haranin et al., 2007; Martin et al., 2008; Suldo & Huebner, 2004). These findings suggest that life satisfaction could be considered a relevant indicator of wellbeing that contributes to promote adaptive development among adolescents (Huebner, 2004).

The wellbeing of adolescents relies largely on family factors, including family structure (Antaramian et al., 2008), family support (McMahon et al., 2020; Shaw et al., 2004; Viner et al., 2012), and family climate (Herrera-Orozco & Paramo-Castillo, 2022; White et al., 2014). According to Bronfenbrenner's theory (1979), the family is the most internal level of the ecological scheme, which entails two-way meeting paths, characterized by the presence of a direct physical approach and an affective climate.

Longitudinal studies have found that positive family values and family warmth, along with open, issue-oriented communication, reduce the risk of mental health impairment from late childhood to late adolescence (Krauss et al., 2020). This kind of communication within the family (vs. a cold, neglectful, and unsupportive familial style) helps to protect the adolescent against mental health problems by modeling adequate coping skills, promoting social competences, and supplying opportunities to voice concerns and feel valued (Repetti et al., 2002).

Among these family indicators, the family climate encompasses the psychosocial characteristics of the family group that exist in family dynamics—namely, its development or constitution, stability or structure, and relationships or functionality (Moos & Moos, 1981). The latter is formed by cohesion (i.e., the degree to which family members help each other, characterized by strong emotional bonds and feelings of closeness, support, caring, and affection), expressiveness (i.e., the degree to which family members are allowed to communicate freely with each other and express their feelings), and conflict (i.e., the degree to which tension, anger, hostility, criticism, and aggressiveness are openly expressed among family members; Moos et al., 1974).

These indicators of family climate (especially family cohesion and conflict) are shown to have strong implications for adolescents’ social, emotional, and behavioral adjustment. Family cohesion, in particular, has been associated with the experience of more meaning and purpose in life, higher levels of subjective wellbeing and life satisfaction, and lower levels of depression and suicidal ideation (Deng et al., 2006; Fosco & Lydon-Staley, 2020; Lau & Kwok, 2000; White et al., 2014). In contrast, adolescents in conflictive families are more prone to develop both internalizing and externalizing problems such as depression, anxiety, behavior problems, and lower levels of life satisfaction and purpose in life (Deng et al., 2006; Formoso et al., 2000; Fosco & Lydon-Staley, 2020). Moreover, developmental reductions in family cohesion or increments in family conflict during early adolescence put adolescents at risk of antisocial behavior, depression, and substance use (Fosco et al., 2016). Besides, family expressiveness has been related to higher global self-worth (White et al., 2014) and lower symptoms of depression and anxiety (Lau & Kwok, 2000).

Together with contextual and family indicators, adolescents’ wellbeing relies on personal resources that help promote life satisfaction and protect against lower mental health. One of these resources is emotional intelligence (EI), a psychological construct consistently linked to better physical and mental health, subjective wellbeing, and interpersonal functioning (Mayer et al., 2008; Zeidner et al., 2012). From an ability perspective, EI encompasses four basic emotional skills: the ability to perceive emotions in oneself and in others, to access and generate emotions to facilitate different types of reasoning, to understand emotions, and to regulate emotions (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Among adolescents, recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses have revealed that EI helps promote wellbeing (Llamas-Díaz et al., 2022). Recent studies with adolescents have clearly demonstrated a consistently positive relationship between EI and life satisfaction (García et al., 2020; López-Zafra et al., 2019; Quintana-Orts et al., 2021).

Likewise, EI has been found to reduce psychological maladjustment (Resurrección et al., 2014). For instance, a systematic review offers evidence that EI competences might help diminish adolescents’ suicidal behavior by changing their approach to negative life stressors (Domínguez-García & Fernández-Berrocal, 2018). Similarly, cross-sectional studies have shown the protective role of EI among adolescents who were victims of child sexual abuse by reducing the probability of suicidal ideation and suicide attempts (Cha & Nock, 2009), and the probability of adolescents suffering bullying by decreasing depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation (Quintana-Orts et al., 2019). Also, a four-month prospective study found that positive and negative affects mediated the relationship between EI and adolescents’ suicidal ideation (Extremera et al., 2023). These findings support the protective role of EI in suicidal ideation and behavior among adolescents, suggesting that EI may reduce these symptoms either directly or indirectly through its effects on affectivity.

Although there is consistent support for the individual role of EI dimensions and family climate in adolescents’ life satisfaction and suicidal vulnerability, it remains unclear whether these personal resources and contextual factors could have a joint effect on the two mental health indicators. Knowing this combined influence would help provide some insight into the mechanisms involved in adolescents’ mental health and thus help in the design of integrative and effective preventive strategies. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to explore whether family climate would moderate the link between EI and psychological adjustment in a large sample of adolescents. Specifically, the potential moderator role of family climate on indicators of psychological adjustment (life satisfaction) and maladjustment (suicidal ideation) was tested.

According to the literature, we expected EI, family cohesion, and family expressiveness to be positively associated with life satisfaction and negatively associated with suicidal ideation, and family conflict to be negatively related to life satisfaction and positively related to suicidal ideation. Conversely, and in agreement with the interactive model, we expected that family climate might moderate these relationships. Particularly, we expected that family cohesion and expressiveness might boost the protective role of EI against the development of suicidal ideation among adolescents, while family conflict diminished that role. Additionally, we expected that family cohesion and expressiveness might increase the role of EI in promoting life satisfaction, while family conflict attenuated that role.

Method

Participants and Procedure

The sample comprised 2,722 adolescents (52.8% female, 46.1% male, 0.3% non-binary gender, and 0.8% non-reported). The mean age was around 14 years (Mage = 14.11; SD = 1.42), ranging from 12 to 18 years. Participants were recruited from fifteen secondary school centers in Southern Spain, selected using a convenience sampling method after headteachers were informed of the study's objectives and voluntarily agreed to participate. Families or legal guardians provided informed consent before adolescents participated. Participants were informed about the study's voluntary and confidential nature. They completed questionnaires in the presence of postgraduate and doctoral students in psychology, who were part of the research group. Assessments took place in classrooms during regular school hours with at least one researcher and one teacher present. The study adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki (Holm, 2013) and was approved by the Ethical Committee of the University of Malaga (62–2016-H).

Instruments

The control variables included age and gender. Additionally, well validated measures were employed to assess the main study variables.

Emotional intelligence was measured using the Spanish version of the Wong and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale (Extremera et al., 2019; Wong & Law, 2002), which appraises four EI aspects: perception of one´s own emotions, perception of other´s emotions, use of emotions, and regulation of one´s emotions. Participants self-reported their overall EI across 16 items using a seven-point response scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 7 (totally agree). An example item is: “I have good understanding of my own emotions” (self-emotion appraisal). Reliability in this study was good (α = 0.86).

Family climate was assessed using the Spanish version of the Family Environment Scale (FES; Fernández-Ballesteros & Sierra, 1989). This instrument consists of 28 true–false items that assess the quality of family relationships within three domains: cohesion, expressiveness, and conflict. An example item of cohesion is: “Family members really help and support each other”. An instance item of expressiveness is: “Family members will often keep their feelings to themselves”. Finally, an example item of conflict is: “We fight a lot in our by family”. Reliability in this study was good for cohesion (α = 0.87) and acceptable for expressiveness (α = 0.67) and conflict (α = 0.67).

Suicidal ideation was measured with the Spanish version of the Frequency of Suicidal Ideation Inventory (FSII; Chang & Chang, 2016; Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2020). This five-item self-report measure assessed the frequency of participants' suicidal thoughts over the past 12 months using a five-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (almost every day). An example item is: “Over the past 12 months, how often have you believed that your life was not worth living?” The reliability in this study was excellent (α = 0.92).

Life satisfaction was assessed using the Spanish version of the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Atienza et al., 2003; Diener et al., 1985). This five-item self-report instrument consisted of self-referencing statements on perceived global satisfaction, employing a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 7 (totally agree). An example item is: “In most ways my life is close to by ideal”. The reliability in this study was good (α = 0.83).

Analytic Plan

Firstly, we conducted descriptive statistics and correlation analyses using SPSS 26.0. Secondly, we assessed the incremental validity of family climate dimensions in relation to adolescents' suicidal ideation and life satisfaction while controlling for age, gender, and EI effects through regression analyses. In each model, we added variables in three steps. Initially, age and gender served as covariates. Next, we included the overall EI score. Lastly, we incorporated the three family climate dimensions. Thirdly, we examined the interaction between family climate dimensions and EI as predictors of adolescents' suicidal ideation and life satisfaction. Specifically, we tested the family climate dimensions as moderators (W) in the relationships between EI (the predictor variable, X), suicidal ideation, and life satisfaction (the dependent variables, Y). For each dependent variable, we conducted three separate moderator models using Model 1 of the SPSS macro PROCESS 4.2. As per standard procedures, we calculated bias-corrected 95 percent confidence intervals using 5,000 bootstrapping resamples. Age and gender were included as control variables, and all continuous predictors were centered to mitigate potential multicollinearity issues.

Results

Descriptive Results

The results of correlation analyses among the main study variables are presented in Table 1. As seen, EI showed positive associations with cohesion, expressiveness, and life satisfaction, while displaying negative associations with conflict and suicidal ideation. Furthermore, cohesion and expressiveness exhibited negative associations with suicidal ideation and positive associations with life satisfaction. In contrast, conflict was positively correlated with suicidal ideation and negatively correlated with life satisfaction.

Table 1 Descriptive results and bivariate correlations
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Regression Analyses

In terms of the results concerning the incremental validity of family climate dimensions in predicting suicidal ideation and life satisfaction, the primary data are presented in Table 2. Gender, EI, and family climate dimensions emerged as significant predictors of suicidal ideation. Family climate dimensions accounted for an additional 8 percent of the variance in suicidal ideation after controlling for other predictors. The complete model explained 22 percent of the variance in suicidal ideation (R2 = 0.22, F(3, 2715) = 126.71, p < 0.001). Similarly, for life satisfaction, all variables included in the model contributed to explaining the variance. Family climate dimensions added an extra 8 percent to the explanation of variance in life satisfaction, even after controlling for other predictors. In total, the model accounted for 29 percent of the variance in life satisfaction (R2 = 0.29, F(3, 2715) = 184.74, p < 0.001).

Table 2 Multiple regression analyses on suicidal ideation and life satisfaction
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Moderation Analyses for Suicidal Ideation

Regarding moderation results with suicidal ideation as the outcome, the results are shown in Table 3. In sum, gender, EI, and family climate dimensions were significant predictors of suicidal ideation. Moreover, EI and family climate dimensions showed significant interactions in predicting suicidal ideation. Firstly, the interaction between EI and cohesion was significant and accounted for 0.05 percent of additional variance in suicidal ideation after controlling for the effects of the covariates and the main effects of the study variables (ΔR2 = 0.005, F = 16.22, p < 0.001). Simple slopes were illustrated following standard procedures (Hayes, 2022). Figure 1 shows the link between EI and suicidal ideation at low and high levels of cohesion. As seen, the negative association between adolescents’ EI and suicidal ideation with low levels of cohesion (b = − 0.27, p < 0.001) was found to be stronger than for those adolescents scoring higher in cohesion (b = − 0.14, p < 0.001).

Table 3 Moderation analyses for predicting suicidal ideation
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Fig. 1
figure 1

Relationship between emotional intelligence and family climate dimensions (cohesion and expressiveness) to explain suicidal ideation

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Secondly, the interaction between EI and expressiveness was significant and accounted for 0.3 percent of additional variance in suicidal ideation after controlling for the effects of the covariates and the main effects of the study variables (ΔR2 = 0.003, F = 11.91, p < 0.001). As Fig. 1 shows, the negative association between adolescents’ EI and suicidal ideation at low levels of expressiveness (b = − 0.27, p < 0.001) was stronger than for those adolescents scoring higher in expressiveness (b = − 0.15, p < 0.001).

Thirdly, the interaction between EI and conflict was significant and accounted for 0.3 percent of additional variance in suicidal ideation after controlling for the effects of the covariates and the main effects of the study variables (ΔR2 = 0.003, F = 11.20, p < 0.001). Figure 2 shows the link between EI and suicidal ideation at low and high levels of conflict. As seen, the negative association between adolescents’ EI and suicidal ideation at low levels of conflict (b = − 0.16, p < 0.001) was weaker than for those adolescents scoring higher in conflict (b = − 0.26, p < 0.001).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Relationship between emotional intelligence and family conflict dimension to explain suicidal ideation and life satisfaction

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Moderating Results for Life Satisfaction

The moderation results with life satisfaction as the outcome are shown in Table 4. In sum, gender, age, EI, and family climate dimensions were significant predictors of life satisfaction. Furthermore, the interaction between EI and conflict was the only significant interaction, accounting for 0.2 percent of additional variance in life satisfaction after controlling for the effects of the covariates and the main effects of the study variables (ΔR2 = 0.002, F = 6.88, p < 0.01). The link between EI and life satisfaction at low and high levels of conflict is displayed in Fig. 2. As seen, the positive association between adolescents’ EI and life satisfaction at low levels of conflict (b = 0.39, p < 0.001) was found to be weaker than for those adolescents scoring higher in conflict (b = 0.49, p < 0.001).

Table 4 Moderation analyses for predicting life satisfaction
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Discussion

This study examined the role of family climate in the relationship between EI and indicators of psychological adjustment and maladjustment. The purpose was threefold: (1) to examine the relationships among the study variables; (2) to determine the extent to which personal and contextual dimensions account for life satisfaction and suicidal ideation; and (3) to analyze the potential moderating effects of dimensions of family climate on the links between EI and suicidal ideation and between EI and life satisfaction.

Significant correlations were found between the study variables. The results showed that conflict was positively associated with suicidal ideation, while cohesion and expressiveness were positively associated with life satisfaction. This finding should be considered in conjunction with the results for EI. Hence, while EI was negatively related to conflict and suicidal ideation, it was positively related to cohesion, expressiveness, and life satisfaction. These findings strengthen prior evidence of the protective role of EI on psychological wellbeing and interpersonal functioning in adolescence (Llamas-Díaz et al., 2022; Tejada-Gallardo et al., 2022).

The present study revealed that adolescents with lower EI reported a higher tendency toward suicidal ideation, and perceived greater tension, hostility, or aggressiveness in interactions with their families. Common life experiences in different domains (school, social life, family) can trigger intensely stressful episodes that some adolescents are either not able to cope with or do through risky behaviors (Galindo-Domínguez & Losada-Iglesias, 2023; Valois et al., 2015).

Recent systematic reviews have underlined that the most influential risk factors for suicidality in adolescence can be categorized into internal (e.g., lack of coping skills, unhealthy lifestyles) and external (e.g., family conflicts and other stressors in social contexts) (Ati et al., 2021; Fonseca-Pedrero et al., 2022). Studies with non-clinical samples of adolescents have found that deliberate self-harm and suicidal behavior are maladaptive strategies for coping with negative emotions or perceived problems (Xiao et al., 2022). Therefore, family problems are considered a stressful life event which may exceed the coping strategies of some adolescents, becoming an important precipitating factor for suicidality (Carballo et al., 2020). This relationship, in turn, becomes more pronounced in adolescents with low EI (Galindo-Domínguez & Losada-Iglesias, 2023). In contrast, adolescents with increased EI are not only able to identify and manage their emotions and those of others, but also demonstrate understanding the underlying causes of these emotions (Llamas-Díaz et al., 2022). Consequently, high EI might lead to adaptative coping with these adverse events (Trigueros et al., 2019).

The results of linear regression and moderated analyses showed the protective role of EI against suicidal ideation by integrating the moderating effect of the different family climate dimensions. As expected, the results showed the predictive value of EI and family climate on positive and negative outcomes among adolescents. On the one hand, regarding suicidal ideation, significant interactions were found between EI and each of the dimensions of family climate. On the other hand, regarding life satisfaction, only a significant interaction effect between EI and dimension conflict was found.

Concerning suicidal ideation, in those adolescents who perceived a positive family climate (high cohesion and/or high expressiveness), the negative relationship between EI and suicidal ideation was strengthened. However, this relationship was weakened in adolescents who perceived a negative family climate (high conflict). In other words, high levels of EI and a subjectively positive family climate contributed to reduce suicidal ideation. The opposite pattern was found for adolescents with low levels of EI and high family conflict. Prior research has also found that family climate may have a greater impact on the risk of suicidal ideation than connectivity with peers or teachers (Joiner, 2005; Miller et al., 2015). During adolescence, the functionality of the family system and the perceived availability of support between the members have great weight in positive development (Barragán et al., 2021; Freed et al., 2016). In a recent study, a family climate with limited communication increased suicide attempts among adolescents (Dávila-Cervantes & Luna-Contreras, 2019). Parent–child conflict is also highlighted as the precipitant more commonly reported among youths (Wasserman et al., 2021). Conversely, those families characterized by effective communication skills tend to cope more adaptively with everyday stressors (Chen et al., 2017). An important body of research confirms that perceived family support plays a crucial role in the relationship between EI and suicidal ideation, finding that adolescents with high EI evaluate others’ actions and emotions more effectively, and perceive the reinforcement, empathy, active listening, or respect from their teachers and family (Galindo-Domínguez & Losada-Iglesias, 2023).

Based on these findings, it can be asserted that perceived emotional support among family members when coping with individual or family problems (cohesion) (Fosco et al., 2016), or families whose members verbalize their feelings (expressiveness), contribute to developmental adjustment and protect against self-harm (Fortune et al., 2016). Therefore, family climate is depicted as a significant protective factor against different life stressors and associated symptoms, including suicidal ideation.

Concerning life satisfaction, only the interaction between EI and conflict was significant in that the positive association between EI and life satisfaction was weakened in those adolescents who perceived high levels of conflict in their families. Both the positive relationship between EI and life satisfaction and the positive role that social support has in this relationship are well established in recent studies (Azpiazu et al., 2023). Research exploring EI suggests that increasing positive emotions and improving emotional regulation improve prosocial behaviors and social reactions among adolescents (Van der Graaff et al., 2018). Consequently, increased EI leads to a more constructive interpersonal conflict resolution (Garaigordobil, 2020). Thus, those adolescents who perceived their family as a source of support and affection showed higher levels of life satisfaction (Fosco & Lydon-Staley, 2020; Schnettler et al., 2018). However, when the family climate is perceived as conflictive or tense, adolescents’ EI might not be enough to increase levels of life satisfaction. This would explain the significant interaction between EI and family conflict and the absence of significant interactions between EI and cohesion and expressiveness in our moderation model. However, as these findings are novel, conclusions should be drawn cautiously. These potential explanations and underlying mechanisms merit further investigation in experimental and prospective research.

Limitations of the Study and Research Implications

Despite the promising findings in this study, some limitations should be mentioned. Firstly, we examined social dimensions perceived by adolescents but did not examine other peer-reported sources of information such as family members. It should be remarked that in this phase of development, relationships with family tend to be affected; therefore, some of the dimensions evaluated, such as conflict, could have exaggerated responses. Future studies should include measures other than self-report questionnaires. Secondly, this is a cross-sectional study and cannot stablish causality between study variables. For instance, according to the broaden-and-build model, positive emotions could also influence and broaden thought-action repertoires among adolescents, thereby facilitating increased resources. Therefore, future studies with longitudinal design would be needed to replicate the current exploratory findings with causal relationships among family dynamics, EI abilities, and well-being indicators. Finally, because the sample is non-representative, random and broader samples would be needed to generalize the results.

Nevertheless, despite the limitations, the results of this research have significant implications for the design of prevention and intervention programs. Suicide prevention strategies should consider the role of families in the development of positive mental health. Future interventions should consider training in the resolution of interpersonal problems such as family conflicts during adolescence since this could solve problems in an early stage of the process. Future research is also needed to explore the impact of family dynamics among adolescents at risk for mental health problems School counsellors working with at-risk adolescents should attempt to enhance both family social support networks and emotional abilities. Adolescents experiencing psychological maladjustment symptoms and lower wellbeing may benefit more from integrative school intervention programs through the creation of a supportive family climate. Besides, participation in EI interventions (Kotsou et al., 2019) may help adolescents at risk of suicidal ideation to develop increased emotional self-efficacy and more robust emotional strategies.

Conclusions

Since the frequency and specificity of suicidal ideation predicts subsequent suicide attempts, it is essential to identify those factors that increase positive adaptation among adolescents at risk. Research on the risk for suicidality in adolescents emphasizes peer coping-skills, maladaptive family environment, cognitive constriction, or emotional turmoil, among others. Based on this research, our study emphasized the significant role that the family plays in the link between adolescents ‘emotional abilities and wellbeing outcomes. These findings suggest that future EI intervention programs that specifically aim to improve wellbeing at school may use activities that give adolescents the opportunity to include family members in fostering socio-emotional skills at home, encourage adolescents’ positive feelings of cohesion and expressiveness, and reduce conflict within the family in all cases where need is indicated.