Abstract
Over the past decade, support for the relationship between mindfulness and happiness has increased dramatically. The consensus is that people who are mindful also experience greater happiness. However, little is still known about how and why greater mindfulness leads one to be happier. The current research calls on recent theorizing to help understand the process by which this occurs. In particular, we studied the indirect effects of both self-connection and meaning in life on the relationship between mindfulness and subjective well-being. To this end, we compiled data collected in our lab over the past 3 years. A total of 2,929 participants provided cross-sectional data while 465 participated in longitudinal studies. Across both samples, the data supported our proposed model. Self-connection and meaning in life combined to mediate the relationship between mindfulness and the various aspects of subjective well-being. In all, it is clear that, although mindfulness is important, self-connection and meaning in life play key roles in one’s subjective well-being. This suggests that more research and interventions should focus on ways to increase self-connection and meaning in life as ways to help people experience greater happiness.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
Data are available, upon request, from the first author.
Code Availability
The code is available, upon request, from the first author.
References
Anglim, J., Horwood, S., Smillie, L. D., Marrero, R. J., & Wood, J. K. (2020). Predicting psychological and subjective well-being from personality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 146(4), 279. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000226
Arslan, G., & Allen, K. A. (2021). Exploring the association between coronavirus stress, meaning in life, psychological flexibility, and subjective well-being. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2021.1876892
Bajaj, B., & Pande, N. (2016). Mediating role of resilience in the impact of mindfulness on life satisfaction and affect as indices of subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 93, 63–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.09.005
Bates, W. (2009). Gross National Happiness. Asian-Pacific Economic Literature, 23(2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8411.2009.01235.x
Bloch, J. H., Farrell, J. E., Hook, J. N., Van Tongeren, D. R., Penberthy, J. K., & Davis, D. E. (2017). The effectiveness of a meditation course on mindfulness and meaning in life. Spirituality in Clinical Practice, 4(2), 100–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/scp0000119
Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., ... & Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 230-241. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bph077
Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., & Creswell, J. D. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18(4), 211–237. https://doi.org/10.1080/10478400701598298
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822
Buss, D. M. (2000). The evolution of happiness. American Psychologist, 55(1), 15. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.15
Capaldi, C. A., Dopko, R. L., & Zelenski, J. M. (2014). The relationship between nature connectedness and happiness: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 976. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00976
Carlson, L. E., Tamagawa, R., Stephen, J., Drysdale, E., Zhong, L., & Speca, M. (2016). Randomized-controlled trial of mindfulness-based cancer recovery versus supportive expressive group therapy among distressed breast cancer survivors (MINDSET): Long-term follow-up results. Psycho-Oncology, 25(7), 750–759. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.4150
Cheung, F., & Lucas, R. E. (2014). Assessing the validity of single-item life satisfaction measures: Results from three large samples. Quality of Life Research, 23(10), 2809–2818. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-014-0726-4
Chu, S. T. W., & Mak, W. W. (2020). How mindfulness enhances meaning in life: A meta-analysis of correlational studies and randomized controlled trials. Mindfulness, 11(1), 177–193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-019-01258-9
Curry, O. S., Rowland, L. A., Van Lissa, C. J., Zlotowitz, S., McAlaney, J., & Whitehouse, H. (2018). Happy to help? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of performing acts of kindness on the well-being of the actor. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 76, 320–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2018.02.014
Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95(3), 542–575.
Diener, E., & Emmons, R. A. (1984). The independence of positive and negative affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47(5), 1105–1117. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.47.5.1105
Diener, E., & Chan, M. Y. (2011). Happy people live longer: Subjective well-being contributes to health and longevity. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 3(1), 1–43. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-0854.2010.01045.x
Diener, E., & Tay, L. (2017). A scientific review of the remarkable benefits of happiness for successful and healthy living. In Happiness: Transforming the development landscape, (pp. 90-117). The Centre for Bhutan Studies and GNH.
Diener, E., Sapyta, J. J., & Suh, E. (1998). Subjective well-being is essential to well-being. Psychological Inquiry, 9(1), 33–37. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0901_3
Dobkin, P. L., Bernardi, N. F., & Bagnis, C. I. (2016). Enhancing clinicians’ well-being and patient-centered care through mindfulness. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 36(1), 11–16. https://doi.org/10.1097/CEH.0000000000000021
Dodge, R., Daly, A. P., Huyton, J., & Sanders, L. D. (2012). The challenge of defining wellbeing. International Journal of Wellbeing, 2(3). https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v2i3.4
Doğan, T., Sapmaz, F., Tel, F. D., Sapmaz, S., & Temizel, S. (2012). Meaning in life and subjective well-being among Turkish university students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 55, 612–617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.09.543
Feldman, G., Hayes, A., Kumar, S., Greeson, J., & Laurenceau, J. P. (2007). Mindfulness and emotion regulation: The development and initial validation of the Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale-Revised (CAMS-R). Journal of psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 29(3), 177–190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-006-9035-8.
Fromm, E., (2013) To have or to be?. London: Bloomsbury Academic. Hill, S. E., & Buss, D. M. (2008). Evolution and subjective well-being. In M. Eid., & R. J. Larsen (eds) The science of subjective well-being, (pp. 62–79). New York: Guilford Press.
Garland, E. L., Farb, N. A., Goldin, P. R., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2015). The mindfulness-to-meaning theory: Extensions, applications, and challenges at the attention–appraisal–emotion interface. Psychological Inquiry, 26(4), 377–387. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2015.1092493
Gawrysiak, M. J., Grassetti, S. N., Greeson, J. M., Shorey, R. C., Pohlig, R., & Baime, M. J. (2018). The many facets of mindfulness and the prediction of change following mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 74(4), 523–535. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22521
George, L. S., & Park, C. L. (2016). Meaning in life as comprehension, purpose, and mattering: Toward integration and new research questions. Review of General Psychology, 20(3), 205–220. https://doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000077
Grossman, P., Niemann, L., Schmidt, S., & Walach, H. (2004). Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health benefits: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 57(1), 35–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3999(03)00573-7
Hill, S. E., & Buss, D. M. (2008). Evolution and subjective well-being. The science of subjective well-being, 62–79.
Hooker, S. A., Masters, K. S., & Park, C. L. (2018). A meaningful life is a healthy life: A conceptual model linking meaning and meaning salience to health. Review of General Psychology, 22(1), 11–24. https://doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000115
Huta, V. (2015). The complementary roles of eudaimonia and hedonia and how they can be pursued in practice. In S. Joseph (Ed.), Positive psychology in practice: promoting human flourishing in work, health, education, and everyday life (2nd ed., pp. 159-182) Wiley.
Jin, Y., He, M., & Li, J. (2016). The relationship between meaning in life and subjective well-being in China: A meta-analysis. Advances in Psychological Science, 24(12), 1854–1863. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1042.2016.01854
Jin, Y., Zhang, M., Wang, Y., & An, J. (2020). The relationship between trait mindfulness, loneliness, regulatory emotional self-efficacy, and subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 154, 109650. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109650
Ju, H., Shin, J. W., Kim, C. W., Hyun, M. H., & Park, J. W. (2013). Mediational effect of meaning in life on the relationship between optimism and well-being in community elderly. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 56(2), 309–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2012.08.008
Keng, S. L., Smoski, M. J., & Robins, C. J. (2011). Effects of mindfulness on psychological health: A review of empirical studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(6), 1041–1056. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.04.006
King, L. A., Heintzelman, S. J., & Ward, S. J. (2016). Beyond the search for meaning: A contemporary science of the experience of meaning in life. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25(4), 211–216. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721416656354
Klussman, K., Curtin, N., Langer, J., & Nichols, A. L. (2022). The importance of awareness, acceptance, and alignment with the self: A framework for understanding self-connection. Europe's Journal of Psychology
Klussman, K., Curtin, N., Langer, J., & Nichols, A. L. (2020). Examining the effect of mindfulness on well-being: Self-connection as a mediator. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 14(e5), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1017/prp.2019.29
Klussman, K., Langer, J., Curtin, N., & Nichols, A. L. (2020). A qualitative examination of the experience of self-disconnection. The Humanistic Psychologist. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/hum0000182
Klussman, K., Langer, J., & Nichols, A. L. (2021). The relationship between physical activity, health, and well-being: Type of exercise and self-connection as moderators. European Journal of Health Psychology, 28(2), 59–70. https://doi.org/10.1027/2512-8442/a000070
Klussman, K., Langer, J., & Nichols, A. L. (under review). Does mindfulness predict meaning and purpose in life? A meta-analytic investigation.
Klussman, K., Lindeman, M. I. H., Nichols, A. L., & Langer, J. (2020). Fostering stress resilience among business students: The role of stress mindset and self-connection. Psychological Reports. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294120937440
Klussman, K., Nichols, A. L., & Langer, J. (2021a). Meaning Gained Versus Meaning Lost: The effects of meaning salience on anxiety and depression during the coronavirus pandemic. International Journal of Psychology. 56(6), 834–842. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12788
Klussman, K., Nichols, A. L., & Langer, J. (2021b). Meaning, purpose, and job satisfaction: The importance of making meaning salient during COVID-19 and beyond. Journal of Personnel Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1027/1866-5888/a000268
Klussman, K., Nichols, A. L., & Langer, J. (2020). The role of self-connection in the relationship between mindfulness and meaning: A longitudinal examination. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 12(3), 636–659. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12200
Klussman, K., Nichols, A. L., Langer, J., & Curtin, N. (2020a). Does positive affect lead to perceptions of meaning in life? The moderating role of self-connection. European Journal of Applied Positive Psychology, 4(7), 1–11. https://www.nationalwellbeingservice.org/volumes/volume-4-2020/volume-4-article-7/
Klussman, K., Nichols, A. L., Langer, J., & Curtin, N. (2020b). Connection and disconnection as predictors of mental health and wellbeing. International Journal of Wellbeing, 10(2), 89–100. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v10i2.855
Larsen, R. J., & Eid, M. (2008). Ed Diener and the science of subjective well-being. In M. Eid., & R. J. Larsen (eds) The science of subjective well-being, (pp 1-13). New York: Guilford Press
Li, P. J., Wong, Y. J., & Chao, R. C. L. (2019). Happiness and meaning in life: Unique, differential, and indirect associations with mental health. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 32(3–4), 396–414. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515070.2019.1604493
Liang, Y., & Zhu, D. (2015). Subjective well-being of Chinese landless peasants in relatively developed regions: Measurement using PANAS and SWLS. Social Indicators Research, 123(3), 817–835. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-014-0762-z
Lomas, T., Medina, J. C., Ivtzan, I., Rupprecht, S., & Eiroa-Orosa, F. J. (2019). Mindfulness-based interventions in the workplace: An inclusive systematic review and meta-analysis of their impact upon wellbeing. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 14(5), 625–640. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1519588
López, A., Sanderman, R., & Schroevers, M. J. (2016). Mindfulness and self-compassion as unique and common predictors of affect in the general population. Mindfulness, 7(6), 1289–1296. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0568-y
Martela, F., & Steger, M. F. (2016). The three meanings of meaning in life: Distinguishing coherence, purpose, and significance. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 11(5), 531–545. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2015.1137623
Myers, D. G., & Diener, E. (1995). Who is happy? Psychological Science, 6(1), 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1995.tb00298.x
Moltafet, G., Mazidi, M., & Sadati, S. (2010). Personality traits, religious orientation and happiness. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 9, 63–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.12.116
R Core Team (2020). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. URL https://www.R-project.org/.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 141–166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2003). On assimilating identities to the self: A self-determination theory perspective on internalization and integrity within cultures. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 253–272). The Guilford Press.
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069
Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S., & Kaler, M. (2006). The meaning in life questionnaire: Assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53(1), 80. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.80
Steger, M. F., Shim, Y., Rush, B. R., Brueske, L. A., Shin, J. Y., & Merriman, L. A. (2013). The mind’s eye: A photographic method for understanding meaning in people’s lives. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 8(6), 530–542. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2013.830760
Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 1–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/1.220.3674
Turkdogan, T., & Duru, E. (2012). The Role of Basic Needs Fulfillment in Prediction of Subjective Well-Being among University Students. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 12(4), 2440–2446.
Van Zyl L.E., Hulshof I., Dickens L.R. (2019) #NoFilter: An Online Photographic Meaningful-Moments Intervention. In: Van Zyl L., & Rothmann Sr. S. (eds) Evidence-Based Positive Psychological Interventions in Multi-Cultural Contexts. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20311-5_3
Vittersø, J., Søholt, Y., Hetland, A., Thoresen, I. A., & Røysamb, E. (2010). Was Hercules happy? Some answers from a functional model of human well-being. Social Indicators Research, 95(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-009-9447-4
Vittersø, J., Oelmann, H. I., & Wang, A. L. (2009). Life satisfaction is not a balanced estimator of the good life: Evidence from reaction time measures and self-reported emotions. Journal of Happiness Studies, 10(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-007-9058-1
Waterman, A. S. (2008). Reconsidering happiness: A eudaimonist’s perspective. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3(4), 234–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760802303002
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063.
Womick, J., Atherton, B., & King, L. A. (2020). Lives of significance (and purpose and coherence): Subclinical narcissism, meaning in life, and subjective well-being. Heliyon, 6(5), e03982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03982
World Health Organization. (2017). Depression and other common mental disorders: global health estimates (No. WHO/MSD/MER/2017.2). World Health Organization.
You, S., & Lim, S. A. (2019). Religious orientation and subjective well-being: The mediating role of meaning in life. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 47(1), 34–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091647118795180
Zhang, D., Chan, D. C. C., Niu, L., Liu, H., Zou, D., Chan, A. T. Y., ... & Wong, S. Y. S. (2018). Meaning and its association with happiness, health and healthcare utilization: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 227, 795-802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.11.082
Zhao, H., Zhang, H., Xu, Y., He, W., & Lu, J. (2019). Why are people high in dispositional awe happier? The roles of meaning in life and materialism. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1208. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01208
Funding
The authors did not receive support from any outside organization for the submitted work.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest/Competing interests
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.
Ethics approval
All data presented in this paper was obtained after approval from IntegReview IRB.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Klussman, K., Nichols, A.L., Langer, J. et al. The Relationship between Mindfulness and Subjective Well-Being: Examining the Indirect Effects of Self-Connection and Meaning in Life. Applied Research Quality Life 17, 2423–2443 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-021-10025-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-021-10025-9