Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Christmas and Subjective Well-Being: a Research Note

  • Published:
Applied Research in Quality of Life Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

According to Holmes and Rahe, Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11(2), 213–218, (1967), Christmas is a critical life event that may cause feelings of stress that, in turn, can lead to reduced subjective well-being (SWB) and health problems. This study uses a quantitative approach and large-scale survey data to assess whether or not respondents in European countries indicate lower SWB before and around Christmas. Precisely, respondents interviewed in the week before Christmas or at Christmas holidays are compared to respondents who are questioned at other times throughout the year. Moreover, the assumption is tested if religious denomination and religiousness moderate the association between Christmas and SWB. Main findings suggest that the Christmas period is related to a decrease in life satisfaction and emotional well-being. However, Christians, particularly those with a higher degree of religiousness, are an exception to this pattern.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The SRSS consists of 43 stressful life events. It asks respondents to indicate all events they have faced during the previous year. Each event is assigned with a score that is supposed to capture the typical level of stress that comes along with the respective event. For instance, a divorce accounts for a stress level of 73 points and “being fired at work” accounts for 47 points. Christmas is associated with a stress level of 12 points.

  2. According to Holmes and Rahe (1967), a score above 150 points is supposed to increase the chance of a major health breakdown by 50 % and scores above 300 are associated with an 80 % increase.

  3. http://www.gallup.com/poll/178859/americans-initial-christmas-spending-estimate-positive.aspx (06/22/2015).

  4. A marginal number of N = 73 interviews were conducted in July and August. It was decided to exclude these interviews from the analyses because July and August are the peak months of Europe’s summer holiday season and this may be associated with increased subjective well-being amongst respondents. Although the exclusion of these 73 cases has no influence on the results, it still seems the proper way to handle the data.

  5. The curvilinear age effect suggests that life satisfaction is generally declining over the life-course. However, at younger ages the relative decline in life satisfaction per year is larger than in older age groups.

  6. Support of this notion is provided by the Kasser and Sheldon study (2002: 324), when they argue that materialistic strivings involve more stressful experiences and distract people from the ‚true meaning’ of the season.

  7. http://www.de.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssetsPI/EY_Studie_-_Weihnachtsgeschaeft_2014/$FILE/EY-Weihnachtsgeschaeft-2014.pdf (06/22/2015).

References

  • Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Whillans, A. V., Grant, A. M., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Making a difference matters: impact unlocks the emotional benefits of prosocial spending. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 88, 90–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barker, E., O’Gorman, J., & De Leo, D. (2014). Suicide around public holidays. Australasian Psychiatry, 22(2), 122–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartunek, J. M., & Do, B. (2011). The sacralization of Christmas commerce. Organization, 18(6), 795–806.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Belk, R. (1995). Collecting as luxury consumption - effects on individuals and households. Journal of Economic Psychology, 16(3), 477–490.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergen, H., & Hawton, K. (2007). Variation in deliberate self-harm around Christmas and new year. Social Science and Medicine, 65(5), 855–867.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Byrd, K. R., Hageman, A., & Belle Isle, D. (2007). Intrinsic motivation and subjective well-being: the unique contribution of intrinsic religious motivation. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 17(2), 141–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carley, S. (2004). Suicide at Christmas. Emergency Medicine Journal, 21(6), 716–717.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, T. J., & Gilovich, T. (2012). I am what I do, not what I have: the differential centrality of experiential and material purchases to the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(6), 1304–1317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., Tyrrell, D., & Smith, A. (1991). Psychological stress and susceptibility to the common cold. New England Journal of Medicine, 325(9), 606–612.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., Tyrrell, D., & Smith, A. (1993). Negative life events, perceived stress, negative affect, and susceptibility to the common cold. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(1), 131–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., Janicki-Deverts, D., & Miller, G. E. (2007). Psychological stress and disease. Journal of the American Medical Association, 298(14), 1685–1687.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cullum, S. J., Catalan, J., Berelowitz, K., O’Brien, S., Millington, H. T., & Preston, D. (1993). Deliberate self-harm and public holidays: is there a link? Crisis, 14(1), 39–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deloitte and Touche GmbH (2014). Christmas Survey 2014. Published online: https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/de/Documents/consumer-business/christmas-survey-2014.pdf. Accessed 28.06.2015.

  • Dittmar, H., Bond, R., Hurst, M., & Kasser, T. (2014). The relationship between materialism and personal well-being: a meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107(5), 879–924.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319(5870), 1687–1688.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, C. G., Boardman, J. D., Williams, D. R., & Jackson, J. S. (2001). Religious involvement, stress, and mental health: Findings from the 1995 Detroit area study. Social Forces, 80(1), 215–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • European Social Survey Round 3 Data (2006). Data file edition 3.5. Norwegian Social Science Data Services, Norway.

  • European Social Survey Round 6 Data (2012). Data file edition 2.1. Norwegian Social Science Data Services, Norway.

  • Fagley, N. S. (2012). Appreciation uniquely predicts life satisfaction above demographics, the big 5 personality factors, and gratitude. Personality and Individual Differences, 53(1), 59–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Federal Statistical Office (2014). Statistisches Jahrbuch. Wiesbaden.

  • Francis, L. J., & Kaldor, P. (2002). The relationship between psychological well-being and Christian faith and practice in an Australian population sample. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 41(1), 179–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Friedberg, R. D. (1990). Holidays and emotional distress: not the villains they are perceived to be. Psychology, 27–28, 59–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geenen, N. Y. R., Hoheluechter, M., Langholf, V., & Walther, E. (2014). The beneficial effects of prosocial spending on happiness: work hard, make money, and spend it on others? The Journal of Positive Psychology, 9(3), 204–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, M., & Elliott, M. (2010). Religion, health, and psychological well-being. Journal of Religion and Health, 49(2), 149–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hairon, N. (2008). How christmas festivities and pressures can damage health and well-being. Nursing Times, 104(50–51), 33–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holmes, T., & Rahe, R. (1967). Social readjustment rating scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11(2), 213–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jessen, G., Jensen, B. F., Arensman, E., Bille-Brahe, U., Crepet, P., De Leo, D., & Wasserman, D. (1999). Attempted suicide and major public holidays in Europe: findings from the WHO EURO Multicentre Study on Parasuicide. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 99(6), 412–418.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kashdan, T. B., & Breen, W. L. (2007). Materialism and diminished well-being: experiential avoidance as a mediating mechanism. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 26(5), 521–539.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kasser, T., & Sheldon, K. M. (2002). What makes for a merry Christmas? Journal of Happiness Studies, 3(4), 313–329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keatinge, W. R., & Donaldson, G. C. (2004). Changes in mortalities and hospital admissions associated with holidays and respiratory illness: implications for medical services. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 11(3), 275–281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, C. L. M., & Reitzes, D. C. (2007). The role of religious identity in the mental health of older working and retired adults. Aging & Mental Health, 11(4), 434–443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kloner, R. A. (2004). The ‘Merry Christmas coronary’ and ‘Happy New Year Heart Attack’ phenomenon. Circulation, 110(25), 3744–3745.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuppens, P., Realo, A., & Diener, E. (2008). The role of positive and negative emotions in life satisfaction judgment across nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(1), 66–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langner, T. S., & Stanley, T. M. (1963). Life stress and mental health. Glencoe: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maltby, J., Lewis, C. A., & Day, L. (1999). Religious orientation and psychological well-being: the role of the frequency of personal prayer. British Journal of Health Psychology, 4, 363–378.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manolis, C., & Roberts, J. A. (2012). Subjective well-being among adolescent consumers: the effects of materialism, compulsive buying, and time affluence. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 7(2), 117–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marsland, A. L., Bachen, E. A., Cohen, S., Rabin, B., & Manuck, S. B. (2002). Stress, immune reactivity and susceptibility to infectious disease. Physiology and Behavior, 77(4–5), 711–716.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masterton, G. (1991). Monthly and seasonal-variation in parasuicide - a sex difference. British Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 155–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miyazaki, A. (1993). How many shopping days until Christmas—a preliminary investigation of time pressures, deadlines, and planning levels on holiday gift purchases. Advances in Consumer Research, 20, 331–335.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mutz, M., & Kämpfer, S. (2013). Emotions and life satisfaction in the “Event Society”—a comparative analysis of 23 European countries following Gerhard Schulzes’ diagnosis. Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, 65(2), 253–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nawijn, J., Marchand, M. A., Veenhoven, R., & Vingerhoets, A. J. (2010). Vacationers happier, but most not happier after a holiday. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 5(1), 35–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norris, J. I., & Larsen, J. T. (2011). Wanting more than you have and it’s consequences for well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 12(5), 877–885.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oarga, C., Stavrova, O., & Fetchenhauer, D. (2015). When and why is helping others good for well-being? The role of belief in reciprocity and conformity to society’s expectations. European Journal of Social Psychology, 45(2), 242–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Páez, D., Ángeles Bilbao, M., Bobowik, M., Campos, M., & Basabe, N. (2014). Merry Christmas and Happy New Year! The impact of Christmas rituals on subjective wellbeing and family’s emotional climate. Revista de Psicología Social, 26(3), 373–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, D. P., Jarvinen, J. R., Abramson, I. S., & Phillips, R. R. (2004). Cardiac mortality is higher around Christmas and New Year’s than at any other time - the holidays as a risk factor for death. Circulation, 110(25), 3781–3788.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Post, S. G. (2005). Altruism, happiness, and health: it’s good to be good. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 12(2), 66–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Putnam, R. D., & Campbell, D. E. (2010). American grace: How religion divides and unites us. New York: Simon and Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richins, M., & Dawson, S. (1992). A consumer values orientation for materialism and its measurement - scale development and validation. Journal of Consumer Research, 19(3), 303–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, J. A., & Clement, A. (2007). Materialism and satisfaction with over-all quality of life and eight life domains. Social Indicators Research, 82(1), 79–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanjuan, P. (2011). Affect balance as mediating variable between effective psychological functioning and satisfaction with life. Journal of Happiness Studies, 12(3), 373–384.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sansone, R. A., & Sansone, L. A. (2011). The christmas effect on psychopathology. Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience, 8(12), 10–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schimmack, U. (2008). The structure of subjective well-being. In M. Eid & R. J. Larsen (Eds.), The science of subjective well-being (pp. 97–123). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schimmack, U., Radhakrishnan, P., Oishi, S., Dzokoto, V., & Ahadi, S. (2002). Culture, personality, and subjective well-being: integrating process models of life satisfaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(4), 582–593.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, M. T., Davies, K., Hung, M., & Wright, S. C. (2010). Identity moderates the effects of Christmas displays on mood, self-esteem, and inclusion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(6), 1017–1022.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schyns, P. (2002). Wealth of nations, individual income and life satisfaction in 42 countries: a multilevel approach. Social Indicators Research, 60(1–3), 5–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sirgy, M. J. (1998). Materialism and quality of life. Social Indicators Research, 43(3), 227–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suh, E., Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Triandis, H. C. (1998). The shifting basis of life satisfaction judgments across cultures: emotions versus norms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(2), 482–493.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tennant, C. (2002). Life events, stress and depression: a review of recent findings. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 36(2), 173–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsang, J.-A., Carpenter, T. P., Roberts, J. A., Frisch, M. B., & Carlisle, R. D. (2014). Why are materialists less happy? The role of gratitude and need satisfaction in the relationship between materialism and life satisfaction. Personality and Individual Differences, 64(1), 62–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Boven, L. (2005). Experientialism, materialism, and the pursuit of happiness. Review of General Psychology, 9(2), 132–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Velamoor, V. R., Voruganti, L. P., & Nadkarni, N. K. (1999). Feelings about Christmas, as reported by psychiatric emergency patients. Social Behavior and Personality, 27(3), 303–308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, J., Schmitz, N., Dewa, C., & Stansfeld, S. (2009). Changes in perceived job strain and the risk of major depression: results from a population-based longitudinal study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 169(9), 1085–1091.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, H. (1980). A Heteroskedasticity-consistent covariance matrix estimator and a direct test for Heteroskedasticity. Econometrica, 48(4), 817–838.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, T. D., & Gilbert, D. T. (2005). Affective forecasting - knowing what to want. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(3), 131–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zonda, T., Bozsonyi, K., Veres, E., Lester, D., & Frank, M. (2008). The impact of holidays on suicide in Hungary. Omega, 58(2), 153–162.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Sport Science, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Sprangerweg 2, D-37075, Göttingen, Germany

    Michael Mutz

Authors
  1. Michael Mutz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael Mutz.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Mutz, M. Christmas and Subjective Well-Being: a Research Note. Applied Research Quality Life 11, 1341–1356 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-015-9441-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-015-9441-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation