Escapism has become a central concept in explaining the motives for activity engagement. Researchers have noted that escapism fundamentally involves redirecting one’s full attention to a specific behavior. Immersive engagement in an activity involves three fundamental elements, task absorption, temporary dissociation, and reduced self-evaluation, which together form the essence of escapism under the common denominator of action attention (Stenseng et al., 2012). The idea of action attention encompasses healthy and unhealthy aspects of escapism. Positive escapism may resemble deep, undisturbed concentration on interesting, wellness-promoting, or otherwise rewarding activities, such as the attainment of the flow state (Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). In contrast, negative escapism serves to distract one from problems, worries, or unpleasant thoughts. In addition to situational stress coping, the underlying reasons for escapism may include anxiety (Boursier et al., 2021), trauma (Holmes et al., 2023), guilt (Kalpokas, 2018), and excessive self-awareness and self-evaluation (Baumeister, 1991). Escapism has also been linked with addictive behaviors (Hagfors et al., 2022; Jouhki & Oksanen, 2022; Jouhki et al., 2022; Király et al., 2015; Melodia et al., 2020), such as gambling and gaming, which are the focus of this study. Overall, escapism is perceived as an unhealthy motivation for leisure activities (Weybright et al., 2019) and as such may require a reasonable amount of moderation.

Escapist motivation has also been studied in the framework of the regulatory-focus theory (RFT) (Stenseng et al., 2012). According to the RFT, people have two fundamental motivational orientations that guide their decision making and behavior (Higgins, 1997). A promotion-guided person seeks positive affect by achieving an expected state of well-being, success, happiness, or pleasure whereas a prevention-guided individual wants to avoid negative affect by fulfilling their duties and obligations (Brockner & Higgins, 2001; Lanaj et al., 2012). Although treating these two avenues as principal drivers behind escapism may be a meaningful approach to explaining situational behavior motives (e.g., Stenseng et al., 2021), we believe the RFT is not optimally suited for defining permanent characteristics of people with escapist tendencies. Having a promotion focus or a prevention focus is not related to personality; instead, promotion guidance or prevention guidance are regarded as momentary states of mind (Higgins, 2012). Therefore, people may approach the same situation with different escapist orientations depending on their current mood.

The self-determination theory (SDT) presents a comprehensive account of psychological processes and social context, circumstances, or conditions that affect human thriving and well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2017). One of its six sub-theories, the basic psychological needs theory, suggests that to secure an individual’s personal development and sustainable well-being, the basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness should be satisfied. Autonomy refers to an individual’s need to make their own decisions, be in control, and have a choice whereas competence refers to the feeling of being able to complete tasks and work effectively. Relatedness refers to the need to have meaningful encounters and relationships with other people. The SDT states that satisfaction of these inherent psychological needs increases self-motivation and mental well-being, but their frustration results in reduced motivation and overall wellness (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Sources of motivation can vary: motivation can be driven by intrinsic or extrinsic factors, thus impacting the subsequent behavior’s quality and efficacy. When an individual is intrinsically motivated, they engage in an activity or behavior because it is inherently enjoyable, interesting, or personally satisfying. An extrinsically motivated individual, in contrast, engages in an activity to achieve an external outcome or avoid a negative consequence (Ryan & Deci, 2017). Research has shown that basic needs are common across cultures (Chen et al, 2015; Church et al, 2013) and age (Lataster et al., 2022) and that their satisfaction is associated with well-being independent of socioeconomic status (Martela et al., 2023). Frustration of these basic needs hampers human growth and vitality, leading to adverse well-being consequences (Jungert et al., 2022).

Autonomy has been considered the most important facilitator in satisfying all three basic needs. However, in different circumstances, any of the three basic needs may take precedence over the other two due to their effect on well-being outcomes (Ryan & Deci, 2017). High autonomy is associated with less defensive coping strategies for stressful life situations. Therefore, people with higher self-determination are less likely to engage in self-handicapping behaviors (Knee & Zuckerman, 1998). For example, in highly performance-oriented contexts, such as competitive sports, coach autonomy support has been linked to higher need satisfaction, which promotes vitality, whereas a controlling coach can produce perceptions of need thwarting and subsequent depression among athletes (Bartholomew et al., 2011).

Recently, the role of escapism and frustration of the basic psychological needs has started to draw interest in the research of excessive behaviors. Evidence suggests that the frustration of basic psychological needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence is connected to gambling and gaming problems (Hagfors et al., 2023; Vuorinen et al., 2022; Mills et al., 2020; Allen & Anderson, 2018). In contrast, people experiencing greater autonomy are less likely to engage in escapist gambling and have fewer gambling problems (Rodriguez et al., 2015). Excessive gambling refers to the preoccupation with gambling and spending increasing amounts of money in gambling regardless of the consequences and often causes severe emotional, financial, and relationship harm (Fabiansson, 2010). Excessive gambling affects not only the gambler but also their significant others in the form of stress, worry, arguments, sleep problems, and financial troubles (Lind et al., 2022).

Research on digital gaming has consistently shown that escapism is connected to more frequent playing of mobile games (McCauley et al., 2017; Melodia et al., 2020). Of the broad components of gaming motivation—achievement, immersion, and socializing—escapism has been identified as a sub-component of immersion. A systematic review and meta-analysis examining gaming motivations revealed the very strong connection between escapism and internet gaming disorder (IGD; Wang & Cheng, 2022). Excessive gaming refers to continuous and repeated involvement in digital gaming, which often leads to significant harm in other areas of life, such as studying, work, and/or relationships (Feng et al., 2017). The same results indicate the connection between escapism and IGD is especially prominent in individualistic cultures. Evidence also suggests the escape motive mediates the association between need frustration and IGD in mobile multiplayer online battle arena games (T’ng et al., 2022). In-game need frustration is associated with negative game-related and general well-being-related outcomes, including escapist motivations, stress, and problematic gaming (Kosa & Uysal, 2022).

A conceptual distinction has been made between escapism and escape in previous gaming research. While both can be viewed as psychological movements from the physical world to a virtual one, escapism has been presented as a more moderate, bidirectional, and temporary flight to a game environment and back. Hence, an individual resorting to escapism may actively try to improve their unsatisfactory situation by occasional engagement in gaming, which could be interpreted as a positive adaptation process. By contrast, escape represents a more enduring and unidirectional abandonment of undesirable real-life circumstances with no intention to return. (Giardina et al., 2023; Calleja, 2010). In this dimension, escape comes out as a more unhealthy and rigid concept than escapism. Additionally, Giardina et al. (2023) argue that escapism and escape should be separated qualitatively, and that neither concept should be treated as positive or negative, but rather “adaptive”. Considering the current state of research, they see escapism and escape “as relatively stable characteristics of the relationships that individuals have with videogames, rather than a motivational push that changes episodically” (Giardina et al., 2023, p 1078). While we commend the theoretical logic behind the concepts of escapism and escape, and their adaptability, we maintain only one concept of escapism in our study for reasons of unambiguity.

Acknowledging the theoretical distinctions raised by Giardina et al. (2023) and Melodia et al. (2020) about adaptability of escapism, as well as the justification behind self-expansion type of escapism promoting positive affect (Stenseng et al., 2012, 2021, 2023), we find sustained rationale to base our study on the negative aspects of escapism. Even if the escapist activity produced immediate beneficial outcomes, such as happiness, pleasure, or emotion regulation, the underlying driver in escapist behavior could still be avoidance of painful, traumatic, or disturbing thoughts. Adverse motives behind escapism may be seen as particularly commonplace when addressing addictive behaviors like excessive gambling and gaming. Evidence also suggests that positive aspects of escapism are theoretically and empirically unstable, and the measurement of escapist behavior should be based on the negative attributes of escapism (Hagström & Kaldo, 2014). In the present study, we will regard escapism as a negatively charged avoidance motive.

This article addresses important gaps in addiction and escapism research by integrating relevant perspectives from areas that have not yet been fully explored together but have the potential to offer valuable insights. Earlier studies tend to rely on cross-sectional designs mostly with limited populations. To overcome these limitations, we will use data from a five-wave longitudinal survey with a nationally representative sample of respondents. The robust dataset will allow us to identify the shared and enduring characteristics and personality traits of people who are driven by escapist behavior motives. Earlier research on the relation between escapism and key personality traits is scarce, and the results are controversial. De Hesselle et al. (2021) identified a positive correlation between escape motive and neuroticism and negative associations between escape motive and agreeableness, extroversion, conscientiousness, and openness. On the other hand, a gaming study by Park et al. (2011) suggests extroversion and agreeableness predict escapism. In the second part of this paper, we analyze what type and how strong of an effect escapism has on excessive gambling and gaming when combined with restricted autonomy, competence, and relatedness. We believe our results make a novel and relevant contribution to the field by clarifying the sustained characteristics behind escapist behavior and analyzing the interaction between escapism and frustration of basic psychological needs as predictors of excessive gambling and gaming.

The objectives of our study are

1) to examine to what extent the frustration of the basic needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness predict escapism and what personality and sociodemographic characteristics are associated with escapism and

2) to determine whether frustration of basic psychological needs moderates the relationship between escapism and excessive gambling and gaming.

Methods

Participants and procedure

The study participants were Finnish residents between 18 and 75 years old (n = 1530). The initial survey took place in April 2021 (T1); the first follow-up (T2) in October-November 2021, with a response rate of 78 % (n = 1198); the second follow-up (T3) in April-May 2022 (response rate 91 % vs. T2, n = 1095); the third follow-up (T4) in October–November 2022 (response rate 92 % vs. T3, n = 1004); and the fourth follow-up (T5) in April–May 2023 (response rate 93 % vs. T4, n = 934).

The survey was designed by the authors and the researcher group and executed together with a data collector company, Norstat, who adjusted the survey’s content to meet their technical requirements. Norstat initiated the data collection by sending an email invitation link to online panelists matching the targeted demographic profile (Finnish mainland residents aged 18 to 75 years). The survey took approximately 15 min to complete (T1: 18.2 min, T2: 13.9 min, T3: 14.5 min, T4: 15.4 min, T5: 16.5 min). Norstat delivered the completed survey data in an anonymized format to the research group. Participation in the study was voluntary, and no direct incentives or bonuses were afforded to the participants, apart from points or price draws Norstat offered the panelists, which may have facilitated survey recruitment.

This study was restricted to 1095 participants who participated in the T3 survey, which included personality measures. The participants were 50.14 % male, and their mean age was 48.73 years (SD = 16.17). They were geographically spread across mainland Finland proportionate to the general population density: 36.53 % were from the Helsinki–Uusimaa region, 20.27 % were from Southern Finland, 24.29 % were from Western Finland, and 18.90% were from Northern and Eastern Finland. A nonresponse analysis comparing the final sample of respondents (n = 1095) to T1 participants (n = 1530) showed a small difference in age at T1 (48.73 vs 46.67), but no major dropout rate was detected based on respondent location or control variables. Furthermore, our sample may be considered well aligned with the general population census figures from Statistics Finland, showing no major deviations.

The study’s data quality protocol was stored on the Open Science Framework website before the data collection. After each wave, the research group verified the data collection in accordance with the protocol and applied quality and integrity measures, such as attention checks and patterned-response checks. The Ethics Committee of Tampere Region in Finland approved the study in March 2021. Participation was voluntary, and the participants were informed about the study and its aims.

Measures

Excessive gambling. The severity of gambling problems was assessed with the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI; Ferris & Wynne, 2001), a nine-item standardized scale to measure gambling-related harm in general-population surveys and commonly used in national gambling studies in Finland (e.g., Salonen et al., 2020). The PGSI has been found to be psychometrically valid and reliably measure the severity of gambling problems in a non-clinical context across different populations (Currie et al., 2013; Holtgraves 2009). The PGSI is a validated subset of the Canadian Problem Gambling Index. Whereas the original PGSI measures the risk of gambling behavior over a 12-month period, we focused our questions on perceived gambling problems over the past 6 months due to our study’s longitudinal setting (e.g., “Thinking about the past six months, how often have you borrowed money or sold anything to gamble?”). The self-assessment questions were scored on a four-point scale (0 = never, 1 = sometimes, 2 = most of the time, 3 = almost always), adding up to total scores between 0 and 27, with higher figures suggesting increasingly risky or problematic gambling. Internal consistency of the excessive gambling variable based on McDonald’s omega was excellent at all the time points (T1: ω = 0.95, T2: ω = 0.94, T3: ω = 0.94, T4: ω = 0.94, T5: ω = 0.94).

Excessive gaming. The ten-item Internet Gaming Disorder Test (IGDT-10) was applied to screen gaming disorders and excessive levels of gaming among the respondents. The IGDT is a widely used screening instrument with cross-culturally validated psychometric properties to assess IGD (Király et al., 2017, 2019). In the Finnish context, the IGDT-10 has been proven psychometrically appropriate and suitable for analyzing problematic gaming among adult respondents (Savolainen et al., 2022; Vuorinen et al., 2022; Männikkö et al., 2019). A recent study comparing the IGD symptoms between the WHO and the APA frameworks validated the IGDT-10 for use in Sweden providing further evidence on its suitability to the Nordic context (Bäcklund et al., 2024). Again, our study’s longitudinal setting made it necessary to focus the measure’s items on the past six months, (e.g., “Have you ever [during the past six months] jeopardized your school or work performance because of gaming?”). The participants responded on a scale of 0 to 2 (0 = never, 1 = sometimes, 2 = often), producing a range of 0–20. Higher scores indicate risky or problematic gaming. Internal consistency of the excessive gaming variable was good (T1: ω = 0.89, T2: ω = 0.90, T3: ω = 0.89, T4: ω = 0.90, T5: ω =0.90).

Escapism. In our study, escapism was regarded as an urge to seek distraction from reality or real-life problems or worries. We applied the Motivation to Play in Online Games-Revised (MTPI-R) scale by Hagström and Kaldo (2014), a modified version of the Motivation to Play in Online Games model (Yee, 2006). The MTPI-R scale includes only negative aspects of escapism, excluding positive interpretations of the concept and making the scale theoretically and empirically more stable. Among different options for escapism scale, the MTPI-R proved to be the most suitable for the purposes of the present study due to its conciseness, good internal consistency, and applicability to both gambling and gaming contexts. The questions of the MTPI-R connect the escapism factor directly to the frequency of gambling and gaming, a vital component in the study of excessive behaviors.

Three questions from the MTPI-R scale were used to define the escapism variable: “How often do you play so you can avoid thinking about some of your real-life problems or worries?” “How often do you play in order to avoid real-life social encounters or situations?” and “How often do you continue to play so that you won’t have to deal with everyday problems and issues?” The participants responded on a scale from 0 to 4 (0 = never, 1 = seldom, 2 = sometimes, 3 = often, 4 = always), producing a total-score range of 0–12. Higher scores indicate more intense escapism. Internal consistency of the escapism variable was good across all time points (T1: ω = 0.87, T2: ω = 0.87, T3: ω = 0.88, T4: ω = 0.86, T5: ω =0.89).

Need Frustration. Frustration of the basic psychological needs was measured by aggregating the frustration subscales of the Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale (BPNSFS; Chen et al., 2015). The BPNSFS has demonstrated strong psychometric properties across different populations and contexts (Cardella et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2015; Kuźma et al., 2020). It has been extensively used in research to explore the relationship between need frustration and fulfillment, well-being, and behavior across various settings, such as work, education, relationships, addiction, and mental health (Cantarero et al., 2021; Mills & Allen, 2020; Mills et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2020), making it an essential and robust measure for our study. Of the 24 items in the full scale, 12 were applied in the frustration subscales: 4 items measuring perceived frustration in autonomy (e.g., “My daily activities feel like a series of duties”), 4 items measuring relatedness frustration (e.g., “I feel the relationships I have are only superficial”), and 4 items measuring competence frustration (e.g., “I feel unsure of my abilities”). The responses to each item were recorded only at T1 on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all true) to 7 (totally true). The three frustration subscales produced a total-score range of 4–28. Higher scores indicate greater frustration, but the range in the relatedness frustration score was 4–27. The internal consistency was good for the autonomy frustration subscale (ω = 0.84), excellent for the competence frustration subscale (ω = 0.90), and good for the relatedness subscale (ω = 0.85). Our analysis focused entirely on basic-need frustration and therefore omitted the satisfaction subscales.

We used a series of sociodemographic factors and personality traits as control variables. Standard sociodemographic controls were selected based on their applicability in gambling and gaming research (see Gainsbury et al., 2015; Slack et al., 2022). They included age (M = 48.73, SD = 16.17 at T1) and dummy variables (0/1) for gender (male, 50.14%), education (master’s degree or higher, 21.74%), employment status (currently working, 51.96%), income (over EUR 4000 a month, 16.62%), being in an official relationship (59.45%), having children (60.46%), and having a significant other (family member or a friend) who has experienced gambling problems (21.18%). The set of personality traits serving as control variables consisted of impulsivity (M = 16.47, SD = 5.78) (Eysenck Impulsivity Scale; Dussault et al., 2011), openness (M = 13.84, SD = 3.53), extroversion (M = 13.30, SD = 4.29), and neuroticism (M = 11.81, SD = 4.03) (the Big Five Inventory; Hahn et al., 2012).

Statistical Techniques

The analyses were conducted with Stata 17.0 software (StataCorp LLC, College Station, TX, USA). Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of the study variables. The means and standard deviations of escapism, excessive gambling, and excessive gaming are presented across five time points, T1–T5. Autonomy frustration, competence frustration, and relatedness frustration were recorded only at T1. Zero-order correlations of all variables at T1 are listed.

Table 1 Descriptive statistics of the main study variables
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Table 2 presents the associations between basic psychological need frustration variables and escapism as well as the role of sociodemographic variables and personality traits in predicting escapism. Because the focus here was on the general risk for escapism, we used the population-averaged negative binomial model to address the average effects while accounting for repeated measures and within-subject correlations. Negative binomial estimation was used because the outcome measures were highly skewed.

Table 2 Population-averaged negative binomial model predicting escapism
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Table 3 summarizes the final random-effects negative binomial regression models showing the longitudinal effects of escapism on excessive gambling and excessive gaming. Escapism, excessive gambling, and excessive gaming are measured at all five time points. The autonomy and competence frustration variables are measured only at T1, and their interaction terms with escapism show between-person effects on both dependent variables.

Table 3 Random-effects negative binomial regression models showing risk factors for excessive gambling and gaming
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Results

The descriptive statistics in Table 1 show the means, standard deviations, reliabilities, and zero-order correlations of the main study variables measured at T1. All the main study variables were positively correlated. The strongest correlations were reported between escapism and excessive gaming (0.77) and between autonomy frustration and competence frustration (0.71) (see Table 1).

Table 2 presents the results of the population-averaged negative binomial model, showing that autonomy frustration, B = 0.26, p < 0.001, and competence frustration, B = 0.29, p < 0.001, independently predict escapism. The association between relatedness frustration and escapism was not statistically significant. In the sociodemographic-variable group, the model indicated escapism is predicted by male gender, B = 0.15, p < 0.001, and having a significant other who has experienced gambling problems, B = 0.17, p < 0.001. Older age, B = -0.50, p < 0.001, higher education level, B = -0.10, p = 0.015, and being in an official relationship, B = -0.10, p = 0.017, were associated with lower levels of escapism. Looking at the personality traits and their connection to escapism, impulsivity, B = 0.14, p = 0.001, and openness, B = 0.13, p = 0.002, predicted higher levels of escapism whereas extroversion, B = -0.11, p = 0.024, was linked with less escapism. The relation between neuroticism and escapism was not statistically significant.

Our final analysis in Table 3 shows the risk factors for excessive gambling and excessive gaming. The random-effects negative binomial models show that excessive gambling is predicted by escapism, B = 0.34, p < 0.001, and the interaction between competence frustration and escapism, B = -0.10, p < 0.001. This interaction effect is depicted in Figure 1, showing a linear increase in predicted excessive gambling in relation to higher levels of competence frustration and escapism. Even though the random-effects model does not differentiate between within-person and between-person effects, escapism has a significant within-person effect on excessive gambling, which we verified by running a fixed-effects model. In addition, male gender, B = 0.28, p < 0.001, having a significant other who has experienced gambling problems, B = 0.38, p < 0.001, impulsivity, B = 0.34, p < 0.001, and extroversion, B = 0.17, p = 0.048, were associated with an increased risk of excessive gambling. Higher education, B = -0.28, p < 0.001, predicted a lower risk of excessive gambling. The model does not include relatedness frustration because it did not reach statistical significance.

Fig. 1
figure 1

 Interaction between competence frustration and escapism on excessive gambling

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In the assessment of risk factors for excessive gaming, our random-effects model showed that escapism, B = 0.52, p < 0.001, autonomy frustration, B = 0.22, p = 0.002, the interaction between autonomy frustration and escapism, B = -0.06, p = 0.021, and the interaction between competence frustration and escapism, B = -0.05, p = 0.041, were associated with more excessive gaming (Table 3). Again, we used a fixed-effects model to verify that escapism had a significant within-person effect on excessive gaming. Figure 2 describes how changes in competence frustration together with escapism relate to excessive gaming, and Figure 3 shows how different levels of autonomy frustration combined with escapism predict excessive gaming. Among the sociodemographic control variables, male gender, B = 0.15, p = 0.002, and having a significant other who has experienced gambling problems, B = 0.16, p = 0.001, predict a higher risk of excessive gaming whereas higher age, B = -0.47, p < 0.001, emerged as a protective factor. Personality traits indicating a higher risk of excessive gaming included impulsivity, B = 0.18, p < 0.001, and openness, B = 0.12, p = 0.015. Extroversion, B = -0.15, p = 0.006, was associated with a lower risk of excessive gaming.

Fig. 2
figure 2

 Interaction between competence frustration and escapism on excessive gaming

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Fig. 3
figure 3

Interaction between autonomy frustration and escapism on excessive gaming

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Discussion

In this study, we investigated the shared characteristics of individuals involved in escapism and assessed whether an interaction between escapism and the frustration of basic psychological needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence predicted long-term patterns of excessive gambling and gaming. Our findings show that frustration of basic psychological needs for autonomy and competence predicts escapism. The results also show that competence frustration moderated the relationship between escapism and excessive gambling and gaming. Moreover, autonomy frustration moderated the relationship between escapism and excessive gaming.

Our results are consistent with the founding principles of SDT in highlighting the significance of basic-need satisfaction in sustainable well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2000, 2017). Conversely, thwarting these basic needs is expected to make people more miserable and prone to defensive coping strategies and self-handicapping. Regarding excessive gambling and gaming, only autonomy- and competence-related frustrations were significant predictors, which have also been linked with game escapism and continued gaming (Liao et al, 2022). It is interesting that the frustration of relatedness has no significant effect here. Perhaps the issues of belonging and relationships do not influence gambling and gaming behaviors or the willingness to escape as much as the issues in autonomy and competence do. After all, digital and gambling games provide challenges and freedom that are intended to involve individuals, and they can be immersive experiences even when there is no frustration in one’s relationships.

The results also suggest that people with impulsive tendencies and an open-minded personality are more susceptible to escapism. In contrast, extroversion seems to protect an individual from engaging in escapist behavior among our study participants, who represented the adult population in Finland. In this respect, our findings partly support and partly contradict previous research. For example, the Korean student population reported a positive association between extroversion and escapism (Park et al., 2011), a notable difference compared to our results, which may have arisen due to cultural and age-related factors. In a previous study involving a German population (de Hesselle et al., 2021), extroversion was negatively correlated with escapism, suggesting a closer alignment with our findings. However, there, open-mindedness and escapism produced opposite results compared to our research. Considering the relatively permanent nature of the key personality traits (Terracciano et al., 2006; Roberts & DelVecchio, 2000), we believe that inconsistencies in the results across studies on escapism and personality underscore the importance of and need for standardized scales and established definitions in the study of escapism.

Taking into account the robustness of our models and representative dataset, we may with a certain confidence argue that escapists are impulsive and open-minded toward new experiences but less extroverted. Sensing a loss or serious limitations of autonomy, escapists tend to feel their current life circumstances restrict their room to maneuver. They may also recognize they possess inadequate skills for the tasks at hand, thus placing their self-worth at risk. In this respect, the present study gives new, important insight into the drivers of escapist motivation, partly answering the question “Who are escapists?”

In conclusion, a key contribution of our study is to present evidence on the development of addictive behaviors as a process where psychological needs, personality traits and environmental factors play intertwining roles. While recognizing the value of neuroscience and brain imaging for the study of addictions, our results remind that the mechanisms of addictive behaviors are closely linked to life situations, individual perceptions of the world, and relatively enduring personality traits. How our findings translate into brain functions and secretion of neurotransmitters is another matter, but they should help people and communities develop better strategies to lead more rewarding and healthier lives.

Most particularly, the present study reaffirms the status of escapism as a “transit area” towards addiction. Our results provide further justification for treating escapism primarily as a negative mental concept in connection with excessive behaviors (see Hagström & Kaldo, 2014). This is also consistent with past research embracing the two-dimensional model of escapism, in which the self-suppression type of escapism has been more strongly associated with exercise dependence than the self-expansion type of escapism (Stenseng et al. 2023). However, when explaining motives for excessive behaviors, we think neither the two-dimensional model of escapism nor the dual approach of promotion and prevention focus according to RFT reach the core of escapism in an ideal way. Even self-enhancing behavior based on promotion-focus may in the long run invoke symptoms of obsession or addiction (Partington et al., 2009), potentially leading to anxiety when a person is deprived of the addictive activity (Smith et al., 2009). Moreover, seemingly useful behaviors, such as exercising, can be used as an escape from the burden of excessive self-awareness (Baumeister, 1991). Therefore, it is essential to concentrate on the root causes of escapism instead of how a particular activity looks or feels. In other words, escapism is neither energy giving nor pleasant, even if the sensations pleasure-seeking activities produce might be. This is why escapism in connection with excessive behaviors should be understood as an adverse psychological phenomenon.

A key strength of our study is the longitudinal and nationally representative dataset, which allows for examination of escapism’s sustained effects. Another important contribution of this paper is the novel analysis of the interaction between escapism and frustration of basic psychological needs. A principal limitation of the study is its geographic scope because the survey was limited to Finnish participants. However, considering the consistency of the basic psychological needs across cultures, it is fair to assume our results are applicable to a broader setting. An additional challenge in the study of escapism is the variability in how it is measured in different research contexts and purposes. While we utilized the MTPI-R, as a comparison, in the 27-item Motives for Online Gaming Questionnaire (MOGQ, Demetrovics et al., 2011), the original escapism–coping dimension is divided into an escapism factor and a coping factor with four questions each. Additionally, the MOGQ includes a fantasy factor that partially overlaps with escapism. Both the Gambling Motives Questionnaire (GMQ, Stewart & Zack, 2008) and The Electronic Gaming Motives Questionnaire (EGMQ, Myrseth et al., 2017) include subscales for coping but not for escapism. The MTPI-R was suitable here as it essentially measures avoidance behavior whereby an adverse consequence is removed when a person resorts to escapism, and the behavior is further reinforced through a learning process. (Hagström and Kaldo, 2014; Aberg et al., 2016). Taking into account that habit learning is enhanced in behavioral addictions (Ngetich et al., 2024), measuring escapism with the MTPI-R was a meaningful choice when analyzing its association with excessive gambling and gaming.

Taking note of the study’s limitations and considering the need for effective identification and prevention of gambling and gaming problems, we suggest a number of topics for future research. Firstly, considering the debate around the concept of escapism, future research should further refine and specify the concept of negative, avoidant type of escapism as a driver for addictive behaviors. Secondly, although the longitudinal setting in our analysis provides an unequivocal view on the role of personality traits in predicting escapism, previous research findings on that relationship are ambiguous. We believe future research would benefit from validating the associations between personality traits and escapism. Thirdly, involving samples from several countries in the research population would help generalize the findings. Finally, developing employee wellbeing calls for up-to-date solutions applied to competitive and result-oriented contexts. Conducting studies on escapism and addictive behaviors in workplaces could help business organizations create practical ways for securing autonomy, support sense of competence, and build workplace communities that prevent mental and addictive disorders.