Abstract
Negative self-conscious emotions (shame, guilt) may be a universal mechanism to support self-regulation to conform to social norms, which may be seen as part of the identity development process. They may work differently as a function of cultural differences in self-construal. The effect of cultural background on the self-regulation of shame and guilt was addressed in four groups of undergraduate students: European Canadian (EC, N = 99), Chinese Canadian (CC, N = 86), international Chinese students in Canada (IC, N = 65) and mainland Chinese (MC, N = 69). Participants read 18 scenarios describing norm violations, and rated each scenario on a 12-item Shame and Guilt Self-Regulation Scale (SGSRS). MANOVAs showed that MCs endorsed a more positive approach (i.e., problem focus coping, support seeking) to the guilt and shame scenarios than CC and EC. Gender differences also emerged; women endorsed more positive approach strategies to shame than men and less withdrawal (denial). Culture affects responses to both shame and guilt, but do not extend to first generation CCs who have lived in North America. Cultural norms interact with self-conscious emotions affect the development of some aspects of identity.
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Notes
For responses to guilt scenarios, the scree plot indicated four factors, which were rotated using a direct oblimin rotation procedure. Items loading at least .40 on each factor were retained. Items loading at .40 and higher on the first factor, “problem focused coping,”, contained the items “Confront the problem directly,”, “Find a good method to solve the problem,” and “Apologize for my bad behavior.” The factor “problem focused coping” accounted for 30.92% of the item variance. The second factor “denial and avoidance” yielded two items “Not think about the event” (item 4: denial) and “Keep my distance from the people who had seen what I had done” (item 5: avoidance), which accounted for 15.49 % of the item variance. The third factor “counterfactual thinking” had three items, which were “Imagine a different outcome of this event,”, “Tell myself never do this again,”, and “Wish that I had never done it or done it in another way.”. This variable accounted for 9.81 % of the item variance. The fourth factor, “support seeking” was comprised of two items “Tell this story to someone else to get some advice” and “Tell others about my unhappy feelings,”, which accounted for 5.83 % of the item variance.
For responses to shame scenarios, the scree plot indicated five factors that explained 64.38 % of the variance. The first factor contained two items “Imagine a different outcome of this event” and “Wish that I had never done it or done it in another way.”. This is clearly “counterfactual thinking.” The “counterfactual thinking” factor accounted for 31.88% of the item variance. The second factor contained the items “Confront the problem directly,”, “Find a good method to solve the problem,” and “Apologize for my bad behaviour.” This is clearly “problem focused coping.” The “problem focus coping” factor accounted for 10.96 % of the item variance. The third factor contained two items “Tell this story to someone else to get some advice” and “Tell others about my unhappy feelings.” This was labeled “support seeking.” The “support seeking” factor accounted for 9.05% of the item variance. The fourth factor contained one item “Not think about the event.” This was labeled “denial” and accounted for 7.22 % of the item variance. The fifth factor contained one item “Keep my distance from the people who had seen what I had done.” This is clearly “avoidance.” The “avoidance” factor accounted for 5.27 % of the item variance.
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Appendices
Appendix A
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(1)
Selected items of self-regulation of shame and guilt
Please read the following scenarios carefully. Try to imagine yourself in each scenario:
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1.
You are at a party and talking with some friends about the classes you took last term. You make a joke about how easy one class is, and how dumb a person would have to be not to get an A in this class. One of your friends looks shocked and hurt and you suddenly remember her telling you that she only got a D in the course last term and had to take the course again. You realize that she must think you are talking about her.
Imagine that you were in this situation. How likely is it that you would do the following?
− 3 | − 2 | − 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | ||
Never use this strategy | Unsure | Definitely use this strategy | ||||||
I would: | ||||||||
1. | − 3 | − 2 | − 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | Confront the problem directly. |
2. | − 3 | − 2 | − 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | Find a good method to solve the problem. |
3. | − 3 | − 2 | − 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | Apologize for my bad behaviour. |
4. | − 3 | − 2 | − 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | Not think about the event. |
5. | − 3 | − 2 | − 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | Keep my distance from the people who had seen what I had done. |
6. | − 3 | − 2 | − 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | Imagine a different outcome of this event. |
7. | − 3 | − 2 | − 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | Tell myself never do this again. |
8. | − 3 | − 2 | − 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | Wish that I had never done it or done it in another way. |
9. | − 3 | − 2 | − 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | Realize that everyone has similar things happen to them. |
10. | − 3 | − 2 | − 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | Tell myself that these feelings are not so bad. |
11. | − 3 | − 2 | − 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | Tell this story to someone else to get some advice. |
12. | − 3 | − 2 | − 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | Tell others about my unhappy feelings. |
13. | − 3 | − 2 | − 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | Other—not included in above lists: Explain: _____________________ |
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2.
It is the first real snowfall of the year, and you and some friends are throwing snowballs and laughing and chasing one another. Another friend shows up and calls your name. You have a snowball in your hand so you playfully throw it at him. But you throw it harder than you had intended, and it hits him in the face, breaking his glasses. He shouts and covers his face as blood starts to run from a cut above his eye.
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3.
You are looking to buy a used computer and find a great laptop that is advertised for about $100 more than you can afford. You ask a friend if you can borrow the $100 so that you can buy the computer, and promise to pay him back after you get your next pay check. Right after you get the computer, several major events happen in your life, and you completely forget about the money and don’t pay him back.
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4.
A good friend confides in you about how much she is attracted to a man you both know, even though he already has a girlfriend and is clearly not interested in your friend. You promise that you won’t tell anyone about this, but several weeks later this man’s name comes up at a party, and you tell the people you are talking to about your friend’s crush on this man.
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5.
You are in a store with some friends of yours and you see a pen with a funny picture on it. You think it’s cute, but don’t think it’s worth the $10 they are asking for it. You look around and see that the store owner is talking to your friends and not paying attention to you. On an impulse, you grab the pen and slip it inside your coat. You then leave with your friends, without paying for the pen.
Appendix B
1a. Factor loadings for self-regulation of guilt in mainland Chinese
Items | Problem-focused coping | Denial and avoidance | Counterfactual thinking | Support seeking | Other (self-soothing) |
Item 1 | .84 | .02 | −.00 | −.03 | .12 |
Item 2 | .81 | −.06 | .06 | −.05 | .02 |
Item 3 | .69 | −.08 | −.06 | −.03 | −.27 |
Item 4 | −.12 | .64 | .00 | .08 | .18 |
Item 5 | −.17 | .73 | .09 | −.08 | −.13 |
Item 6 | .06 | .53 | −.11 | .03 | −.24 |
Item 7 | .24 | .01 | −.52 | −.03 | −.56 |
Item 8 | .00 | −.04 | −.90 | .03 | −.08 |
Item 9 | −.08 | .13 | −.44 | −.15 | .18 |
Item 10 | .08 | .61 | −.09 | −.07 | .31 |
Item 11 | .25 | .03 | .08 | −.75 | −.14 |
Item 12 | −.10 | −.04 | −.08 | −.96 | .07 |
Note 1: Item 1: Confront the problem directly. Item 2: Find a good method to solve the problem. Item 3: Apologize for my bad behaviour. Item 4: Not think about the event. Item 5: Keep my distance from the people who had seen what I had done. Item 6: Imagine a different outcome of this event. Item 7: Tell myself never do this again. Item 8: Wish that I had never done it or done it in another way. Item 9: Realize that everyone has similar things happen to them. Item 10: Tell myself that these feelings are not so bad. Item 11: Tell this story to someone else to get some advice. Item 12: Tell others about my unhappy feelings
Note 2: Factors could not be extracted by using factor axis factoring in international Chinese group when split file
1b. Factor loadings for self-regulation of guilt in Chinese Canadian
Items | Problem-focused coping | Denial and avoidance | Counterfactual thinking | Support seeking | Other (self-soothing) |
Item 1 | .98 | −.04 | .16 | .04 | .06 |
Item 2 | .76 | .01 | −.11 | −.06 | −.04 |
Item 3 | .85 | −.00 | −.06 | .01 | −.03 |
Item 4 | −.03 | .72 | .09 | −.15 | .14 |
Item 5 | −.08 | .77 | .02 | .08 | −.12 |
Item 6 | .04 | .37 | −.36 | .22 | .06 |
Item 7 | −.06 | −.11 | −.92 | −.08 | −.04 |
Item 8 | .14 | .02 | −.77 | .06 | .03 |
Item 9 | .07 | −.09 | −.05 | −.00 | .77 |
Item 10 | −.12 | .15 | .07 | .05 | .67 |
Item 11 | −.02 | −.12 | −.02 | .87 | .10 |
Item 12 | .02 | .07 | .05 | .98 | −.06 |
Note: Item 1: Confront the problem directly. Item 2: Find a good method to solve the problem. Item 3: Apologize for my bad behaviour. Item 4: Not think about the event. Item 5: Keep my distance from the people who had seen what I had done. Item 6: Imagine a different outcome of this event. Item 7: Tell myself never do this again. Item 8: Wish that I had never done it or done it in another way. Item 9: Realize that everyone has similar things happen to them. Item 10: Tell myself that these feelings are not so bad. Item 11: Tell this story to someone else to get some advice. Item 12: Tell others about my unhappy feelings
1c. Factor loadings for self-regulation of guilt in European Canadian
Items | Problem-focused coping | Denial and avoidance | Counterfactual thinking | Support seeking | Other (self-soothing) |
Item 1 | 1.00 | −.02 | −.15 | .00 | .05 |
Item 2 | .89 | −.04 | .06 | −.01 | −.03 |
Item 3 | .87 | .06 | −.18 | −.02 | −.01 |
Item 4 | −.18 | .57 | .13 | .05 | .15 |
Item 5 | −.01 | .75 | .35 | .06 | .07 |
Item 6 | .00 | .43 | −.10 | −.19 | −.19 |
Item 7 | .11 | −.08 | .91 | .04 | .06 |
Item 8 | .00 | −.08 | .99 | .05 | .01 |
Item 9 | .01 | −.09 | .11 | −.22 | .63 |
Item 10 | .01 | .19 | −.05 | .05 | .97 |
Item 11 | .04 | −.06 | −.08 | −.89 | .10 |
Item 12 | .01 | .02 | −.02 | −.87 | .01 |
Note: Item 1: Confront the problem directly. Item 2: Find a good method to solve the problem. Item 3: Apologize for my bad behaviour. Item 4: Not think about the event. Item 5: Keep my distance from the people who had seen what I had done. Item 6: Imagine a different outcome of this event. Item 7: Tell myself never do this again. Item 8: Wish that I had never done it or done it in another way. Item 9: Realize that everyone has similar things happen to them. Item 10: Tell myself that these feelings are not so bad. Item 11: Tell this story to someone else to get some advice. Item 12: Tell others about my unhappy feelings
2a. Factor loadings for self-regulation of shame in international Chinese
Items | Problem-focused coping | Denial | Avoidance | Counterfactual thinking | Support seeking |
Item 1 | .94 | .01 | .10 | .03 | .01 |
Item 2 | .94 | −.04 | .06 | −.04 | −.01 |
Item 3 | .56 | .07 | −.51 | −.02 | −.28 |
Item 4 | −.01 | .73 | −.06 | −.22 | .04 |
Item 5 | −.15 | .00 | −.89 | .03 | .09 |
Item 6 | −.11 | .08 | .12 | −.96 | .08 |
Item 7 | .38 | −.16 | −.37 | .15 | −.01 |
Item 8 | .32 | −.18 | −.22 | −.51 | .01 |
Item 9 | .43 | .05 | .27 | −.26 | .47 |
Item 10 | .03 | .81 | .02 | .16 | .21 |
Item 11 | .01 | .01 | −.11 | −.06 | .93 |
Item 12 | −.06 | −.03 | −.03 | .01 | .97 |
Note 1: Item 1: Confront the problem directly. Item 2: Find a good method to solve the problem. Item 3: Apologize for my bad behaviour. Item 4: Not think about the event. Item 5: Keep my distance from the people who had seen what I had done. Item 6: Imagine a different outcome of this event. Item 7: Tell myself never do this again. Item 8: Wish that I had never done it or done it in another way. Item 9: Realize that everyone has similar things happen to them. Item 10: Tell myself that these feelings are not so bad. Item 11: Tell this story to someone else to get some advice. Item 12: Tell others about my unhappy feelings
Note 2: Factors could not be extracted by using factor axis factoring in mainland Chinese and Chinese Canadians when split file
Appendix C
Factor loadings for self-regulation of shame and guilt
Item | Oblique factor loading |
Problem-focused coping of shame | |
1. Confront the problem directly. | −.91 |
2. Find a good method to solve the problem. | −.86 |
3. Apologize for my bad behaviour. | −.52 |
Denial of shame | |
4. Not think about the event. | .48 |
Avoidance of shame | |
5. Keep my distance from the people who had seen what I had done. | .69 |
Counterfactual thinking of shame | |
6. Imagine a different outcome of this event. | .56 |
7. Tell myself never do this again. | .61 |
8. Wish that I had never done it or done it in another way. | .98 |
Support seeking of shame | |
11. Tell this story to someone else to get some advice. | − 1.00 |
12. Tell others about my unhappy feelings. | −.85 |
Problem-focused coping of guilt | |
1. Confront the problem directly. | .98 |
2. Find a good method to solve the problem. | .84 |
3. Apologize for my bad behaviour. | .74 |
Denial and avoidance of guilt | |
4. Not think about the event. | .59 |
5. Keep my distance from the people who had seen what I had done. | .72 |
Counterfactual thinking of guilt | |
6. Imagine a different outcome of this event. | .37 |
7. Tell myself never do this again. | .85 |
8. Wish that I had never done it or done it in another way. | .87 |
Support seeking of guilt | |
11. Tell this story to someone else to get some advice. | −.93 |
12. Tell others about my unhappy feelings. | −.88 |
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Su, C., Hynie, M. Chinese and Canadian Identity on Responses to the Experience of Shame and Guilt. Int J Ment Health Addiction 21, 1–19 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-019-00176-0
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-019-00176-0