Abstract
The activity of play has been ever present in human history and the Internet has emerged as a playground increasingly populated by gamers. Research suggests that a minority of Internet game players experience symptoms traditionally associated with substance-related addictions, including mood modification, tolerance and salience. Because the current scientific knowledge of Internet gaming addiction is copious in scope and appears relatively complex, this literature review attempts to reduce this confusion by providing an innovative framework by which all the studies to date can be categorized. A total of 58 empirical studies were included in this literature review. Using the current empirical knowledge, it is argued that Internet gaming addiction follows a continuum, with antecedents in etiology and risk factors, through to the development of a “full-blown” addiction, followed by ramifications in terms of negative consequences and potential treatment. The results are evaluated in light of the emergent discrepancies in findings, and the consequent implications for future research.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
A guild is a social grouping of people in-game, usually established around common goals, such as accessing the respective game’s high-end content collectively (Ducheneaut et al. 2007).
References
Allison, S. E., von Wahlde, L., Shockley, T., & Gabbard, G. O. (2006). The development of the self in the era of the Internet and role-playing fantasy games. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(3), 381–385.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders—Text revision. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.
Arnett, J. (1994). Sensation seeking: a new conceptualization and a new scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 16, 289–296.
Bar-On, R., & Parker, J. D. A. (2000). The Bar-On EQ-i:YV: Technical manual. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.
Batthyány, D., & Pritz, A. (Eds.). (2009). Rausch ohne Drogen. Wien: Springer.
Batthyány, D., Müller, K. W., Benker, F., & Wölfling, K. (2009). Computer game playing: clinical characteristics of dependence and abuse among adolescents. Wiener Klinsche Wochenschrift, 121(15–16), 502–509.
Beck, A. T., & Steer, R. (1993). Manual for the Beck depression inventory. San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.
Beranuy, M., Carbonell, X., & Griffiths, M. (2010). A qualitative analysis of online gaming addicts in treatment. Submitted manuscript.
Blum, K., Noble, E. P., Sheridan, P. J., et al. (1990). Allelic association of human dopamine D2 receptor gene in alcoholism. Journal of the American Medical Association, 263, 2055–2060.
Buss, A. H., & Perry, M. (1992). The aggression questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 452–459.
Butcher, J. N., Dahlstrom, W. G., Graham, J. R., Tellegen, A., & Kaemmer, B. (1989). The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2): Manual for administration and scoring. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Caplan, S. E. (2002). Problematic internet use and psychosocial well-being: development of a theory-based cognitive-behavioral measurement instrument. Computers in Human Behavior, 18(5), 553–575.
Caplan, S. E., Williams, D., & Yee, N. (2009). Problematic internet use and psychosocial well-being among MMO players. Computers in Human Behavior, 25(6), 1312–1319.
Chan, P. A., & Rabinowitz, T. (2006). A cross-sectional analysis of video games and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in adolescents. Annals of General Psychiatry, 5(1), 16–26.
Chappell, D., Eatough, V., Davies, M. N. O., & Griffiths, M. D. (2006). Everquest—It’s just a computer game right? An interpretative phenomenological analysis of online gaming addiction. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 4, 205–216.
Charlton, J. P. (2002). A factor-analytic investigation of computer ‘addiction’ and engagement. British Journal of Psychology, 93, 329–344.
Charlton, J. P., & Danforth, I. D. W. (2007). Distinguishing addiction and high engagement in the context of online game playing. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(3), 1531–1548.
Chiu, S. I., Lee, J. Z., & Huang, D. H. (2004). Video game addiction in children and teenagers in Taiwan. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 7(5), 571–581.
Choi, D., Kim, H., & Kim, J. (2000). A cognitive and emotional strategy for computer game design. Journal of MIS Research, 10, 165–187.
Chou, T. J., & Ting, C. C. (2003). The role of flow experience in cyber-game addiction. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 6(6), 663–675.
Chuang, Y. C. (2006). Massively multiplayer online role-playing game-induced seizures: a neglected health problem in Internet addiction. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 9(4), 451–456.
Chumbley, J., & Griffiths, M. (2006). Affect and the computer game player: the effect of gender, personality, and game reinforcement structure on affective responses to computer game-play. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 9(3), 308–316.
Comings, D. E., Rosenthal, R. J., Lesieur, H. R., et al. (1996). A study of the dopamine D2 receptor gene in pathological gambling. Pharmacogenetics, 6, 223–234.
Conners, C. K., Sitarenios, G., Parker, J. D., & Epstein, J. N. (1998). The revised Conners’ Parent Rating Scale (CPR-R): Factor structure, reliability, and criterion validity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26(4), 257–268.
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1985). The NEO personality inventory manual. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: the psychology of optimal experience. New York: HarperCollins.
Cultrara, A., & Har-El, G. (2002). Hyperactivity-induced suprahyoid muscular hypertrophy secondary to excessive video game play: a case report. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, 60(3), 326–327.
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.
Ducheneaut, N., Yee, N., Nickell, E., & Moore, R. J. (2007). The life and death of online gaming communitites: A look at guilds in World of Warcraft. San Jose: Paper presented at the CHI.
Dworak, M., Schierl, T., Bruns, T., & Struder, H. K. (2007). Impact of singular excessive computer game and television exposure on sleep patterns and memory performance of school-aged children. Pediatrics, 120(5), 978–985.
Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. G. B. (1996). Manual of the Eysenck Personality Scales (EPS adult) (revisedth ed.). London: Hodder & Stoughton Educational.
Farrell, E. (1990). Hanging in and dropping out: Voices of at-risk high school students. New York: Teachers College Press.
First, M. B., Gibbon, M., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (1996). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders: Clinician Version (SCID-CV): Administration booklet. Washington, D. C.: American Psychiatric Press.
First, M. B., Gibbon, M., Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B. W., & Benjamin, L. S. (1997). Structural Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (R) Axis II Personality Disorders (SCID-II). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press.
Griffiths, M. D. (2010a). Online gaming addiction: Fact or fiction? In W. Kaminski & M. Lorber (Eds.), Clash of realities (pp. 191–203). Munch: Kopaed.
Griffiths, M. D. (2010b). The role of context in online gaming excess and addiction: some case study evidence. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 8(1), 119–125.
Griffiths, M. D., & Parke, J. (2010). Adolescent gambling on the internet: a review. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 22, 59–75.
Griffiths, M. D., Davies, M. N. O., & Chappell, D. (2004). Demographic factors and playing variables in online computer gaming. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 7(4), 479–487.
Grüsser, S. M., & Thalemann, C. N. (Eds.). (2006). Verhaltenssucht—Diagnostik, Therapie, Forschung. Bern: Hans Huber.
Grüsser, S. M., Thalemann, R., Albrecht, U., & Thalemann, C. N. (2005). Exzessive Computernutzung im Kindesalter—Ergebnisse einer psychometrischen Erhebung. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift, 117(5–6), 188–195.
Grüsser, S. M., Thalemann, R., & Griffiths, M. D. (2007a). Excessive computer game playing: evidence for addiction and aggression? Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 10(2), 290–292.
Grüsser, S. M., Wölfling, K., Düffert, S., et al. (2007b). Questionnaire on differentiated assessment of addiction (QDAA). Göttingen: Hogrefe.
Han, D. H., Lee, Y. S., Yang, K. C., Kim, E. Y., Lyoo, I. K., & Renshaw, P. F. (2007). Dopamine genes and reward dependence in adolescents with excessive internet video game play. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 1(3), 133–138.
Han, D. H., Lee, Y. S., Na, C., Ahn, J. Y., Chung, U. S., Daniels, M. A., et al. (2009). The effect of methylphenidate on Internet video game play in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 50(3), 251–256.
Han, D. H., Hwang, J. W., & Renshaw, P. F. (2010). Bupropion sustained release treatment decreases craving for video games and cue-induced brain activity in patients with Internet video game addiction. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 18(4), 297–304.
Hoeft, F., Watson, C. L., Kesler, S. R., Bettinger, K. E., & Reiss, A. L. (2008). Gender differences in the mesocorticolimbic system during computer game-play. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42(4), 253–258.
Hsu, S. H., Wen, M. H., & Wu, M. C. (2009). Exploring user experiences as predictors of MMORPG addiction. Computers & Education, 53(2), 990–999.
Huizinga, J. (1938). Homo ludens: A study of the play-element in culture. Boston: Beacon.
Hussain, Z., & Griffiths, M. D. (2009a). The attitudes, feelings, and experiences of online gamers: a qualitative analysis. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 12(6), 747–753.
Hussain, Z., & Griffiths, M. D. (2009b). Excessive use of massively-multi-player online role-playing games: a pilot study. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction., 7, 563–571.
Hwang, S. T. (1995). Development of diagnostic criteria for personality disorder. Seoul: Yonsei University. Master‘s thesis.
Jeong, E. J., & Kim, D. W. (2010). Social activities, self-efficacy, game attitudes, and game addiction. Cyberpsychology, Behavior & Social Networking, e-pub ahead of print.
Kalivas, P. W., & Volkow, N. D. (2005). The neural basis of addiction: a pathology of motivation and choice. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 1403–1413.
Kim, M. G., & Kim, J. (2010). Cross-validation of reliability, convergent and discriminant validity for the problematic online game use scale. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(3), 389–398.
Kim, S. W., Shin, I. S., Kim, J. M., Yang, S. J., Shin, H. Y., & Yoon, J. S. (2006). Association between attitude toward medication and neurocognitive function in schizophrenia. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 29, 197–205.
Kim, E. J., Namkoong, K., Ku, T., & Kim, S. J. (2008). The relationship between online game addiction and aggression, self-control and narcissistic personality traits. European Psychiatry, 23(3), 212–218.
King, D. L., & Delfabbro, P. (2009a). Motivational differences in problem video game play. Journal of CyberTherapy & Rehabilitation, 2(2), 139–149.
King, D. L., & Delfabbro, P. (2009b). Understanding and assisting excessive players of video games: a community psychology perspective. The Australian Community Psychologist, 21(1), 62–74.
King, D. L., Delfabbro, P. H., & Zajac, I. T. (2009). Preliminary validation of a new clinical tool for identifying problem video game playing. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, e-pub ahead of print.
King, D. L., Delfabbro, P. H., & Griffiths, M. D. (2010). The convergence of gambling and digital media: implications for gambling in young people. Journal of Gambling Studies, 26, 175–187.
King, D. L., Delfabbro, P. H., & Griffiths, M. D. (2011). The role of structural characteristics in problematic video game play: an empirical study. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. doi:10.1007/s11469-010-9289-y.
Knutson, B., & Cooper, J. C. (2005). Functional magnetic resonance imaging of reward prediction. Current Opinion in Neurology, 18, 411–417.
Ko, C. H., Yen, J. Y., Chen, C. C., Chen, S. H., & Yen, C. F. (2005). Gender differences and related factors affecting online gaming addiction among Taiwanese adolescents. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 193(4), 273–277.
Ko, C. H., Liu, G. C., Hsiao, S. M., Yen, J. Y., Yang, M. J., Lin, W. C., et al. (2009). Brain activities associated with gaming urge of online gaming addiction. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 43(7), 739–747.
Lemmens, J. S., Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2009). Development and validation of a game addiction scale for adolescents. Media Psychology, 12(1), 77–95.
Lemmens, J. S., Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2010). Psychosocial causes and consequences of pathological gaming. Computers in Human Behavior, e-pub ahead of print.
Liu, M., & Peng, W. (2009). Cognitive and psychological predictors of the negative outcomes associated with playing MMOGs (massively multiplayer online games). Computers in Human Behavior, 25, 1306–1311.
Liu, M., Ko, H., & Wu, J. (2008). The role of positive/negative outcome expectancy and refusal self-efficacy of Internet use on Internet addiction among college students in Taiwan. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 11, 451–457.
Lu, H. P., & Wang, S. M. (2008). The role of Internet addiction in online game loyalty: an exploratory study. Internet Research, 18(5), 499–519.
Meerkerk, G. J., Van Den Eijnden, R., Vermulst, A. A., & Garretsen, H. F. L. (2009). The Compulsive Internet Use Scale (CIUS): some psychometric properties. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 12(1), 1–6.
Mehroof, M., & Griffiths, M. D. (2010). Online gaming addiction: the role of sensation seeking, self-control, neuroticism, aggression, state anxiety, and trait anxiety. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 13(3), 313–316.
Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (1992). Age and depression. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 33, 187–205.
Muris, P. (2001). A brief questionnaire for measuring self-efficacy in youths. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 23(3), 145–149.
Myers, D. (1990). A Q-study of game player aesthetics. Simulation & Gaming, 21, 375–396.
Ng, B. D., & Wiemer-Hastings, P. (2005). Addiction to the internet and online gaming. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 8(2), 110–113.
Noble, E. P., Blum, K., Khalsa, M. E., et al. (1993). Allelic association of the D2 dopamine receptor gene with cocaine dependence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 33, 271–285.
Parker, J. D. A., Taylor, R. N., Eastabrook, J. M., Schell, S. L., & Wood, L. M. (2008). Problem gambling in adolescence: relationships with internet misuse, gaming abuse and emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 45(2), 174–180.
Peng, W., & Liu, M. (2010). Online gaming dependency: a preliminary study in China. CyberPsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 13(3), 329–333.
Peters, C. S., & Malesky, L. A. (2008). Problematic usage among highly-engaged players of massively multiplayer online role playing games. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 11(4), 480–483.
Porter, G., Starcevic, V., Berle, D., & Fenech, P. (2010). Recognizing problem video game use. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 44(2), 120–128.
Rau, P. L. P., Peng, S. Y., & Yang, C. C. (2006). Time distortion for expert and novice online game players. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 9(4), 396–403.
Rehbein, F., & Borchers, M. (2009). Suechtig nach virtuellen Welten? Exzessives Computerspielen und Computerspielabhaengigkeit in der Jugend [Addicted to virtual worlds? Excessive video gaming and video game addiction in adolescents]. Kinderaerztliche Praxis, 80, 42–49.
Rehbein, F., Psych, G., Kleimann, M., Mediasci, G., & Mossle, T. (2010). Prevalence and risk factors of video game dependency in adolescence: results of a German nationwide survey. CyberPsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 13(3), 269–277.
Riggio, R. (1989). The social skill inventory manual (Researchth ed.). Palo: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and adolescent self-image. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Rosenberg, M., Schooler, C., & Schoenbach, C. (1989). Self-esteem and adolescent problems: modeling reciprocal effects. American Sociological Review, 54, 1004–1018.
Russell, D. (1996). The UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): reliability, validity, and factor structure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 66, 20–40.
Salguero, R. A. T., & Moran, R. M. B. (2002). Measuring problem video game playing in adolescents. Addiction, 97(12), 1601–1606.
Seah, M., & Cairns, P. (2007). From immersion to addiction in videogames. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 22nd British HCI Group Annual Conference on People and Computers: Culture, Creativity, Interaction—Volume I, Liverpool, UK.
Shaffer, H. J., LaPlante, D. A., LaBrie, R. A., Kidman, R. C., Donato, A. N., & Stanton, M. V. (2004). Toward a syndrome model of addiction: multiple expressions, common etiology. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 12(6), 367–374.
Sherer, M., Maddux, J. E., Mercandante, B., Prentice-Dunn, S., Jacobs, B., & Rogers, R. W. (1982). The Self-Efficacy Scale: construction and validation. Psychological Reports, 51, 663–671.
Silverstone, R. (1999). Rhetoric, play, performance: revisiting a study of the making of a BBC documentary. In J. Gripsrud (Ed.), Television and common knowledge (pp. 71–90). London: Routledge.
Skoric, M. M., Teo, L. L. C., & Neo, R. L. (2009). Children and video games: addiction, engagement, and scholastic achievement. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 12(5), 567–572.
Smahel, D., Blinka, L., & Ledabyl, O. (2008). Playing MMORPGs: connections between addiction and identifying with a character. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 11(6), 715–718.
So, Y. K., Noh, J. N., Kim, Y. S., Ko, S. G., & Koh, Y. J. (2002). The reliability and validity of Korean parent and teacher ADHD rating scale. Journal of the Korean Neuropsychiatric Association, 41, 283–289.
Tangney, P. J., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. L. (2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grads, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72, 272–322.
Taylor, T. L. (2006). Play between worlds. Exploring online game culture. Cambridge: MIT.
Terry, A., Szabo, A., & Griffiths, M. (2004). The exercise addiction inventory: a new brief screening tool. Addiction Research & Theory, 12(5), 489–499.
Thalemann, R., Albrecht, U., Thalemann, C., & Grüsser, S. M. (2004). Kurzbeschreibung und psychometrische Kennwerte des “Fragebogens zum Computerspielverhalten bei Kindern (CSVK). Zeitschrift für Psychologie und Medizin, 16, 226–233.
Thalemann, R., Wölfling, K., & Grüsser, S. M. (2007). Specific cue reactivity on computer game-related cues in excessive gamers. Behavioral Neuroscience, 121(3), 614–618.
The NPD Group. (2010). 2009 US video game industry and PC game software retail sales reach $20.2 billion. Retrieved November 4, 2010, from http://www.npd.com/press/releases/press_100114.html.
Thomas, N. J., & Martin, F. H. (2010). Video-arcade game, computer game and Internet activities of Australian students: participation habits and prevalence of addiction. Australian Journal of Psychology, 62(2), 59–66.
van Rooij, A. J., Schoenmakers, T. M., van de Eijnden, R., & van de Mheen, D. (2010). Compulsive Internet use: the role of online gaming and other Internet applications. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 47(1), 51–57.
Wan, C. S., & Chiou, W. B. (2006a). Psychological motives and online games addiction: a test of flow theory and humanistic needs theory for Taiwanese adolescents. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 9(3), 317–324.
Wan, C. S., & Chiou, W. B. (2006b). Why are adolescents addicted to online gaming? An interview study in Taiwan. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 9(6), 762–766.
Wan, C. S., & Chiou, W. B. (2007). The motivations of adolescents who are addicted to online games: a cognitive perspective. Adolescence, 42(165), 179–197.
Widyanto, L., & McMurran, M. (2004). The psychometric properties of the Internet Addiction Test. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 7(4), 443–450.
Williams, D., Yee, N., & Caplan, S. E. (2008). Who plays, how much, and why? Debunking the stereotypical gamer profile. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13, 993–1018.
Wölfling, K., Thalemann, R., & Grusser-Sinopoli, S. M. (2008). Computer game addiction: A psychopathological symptom complex in adolescence. Psychiatrische Praxis, 35(5), 226–232.
Wood, R. T. A., & Griffiths, M. D. (2007). Time loss whilst playing video games: is there a relationship to addictive behaviors? International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 5, 141–149.
Yee, N. (2006a). The demographics, motivations and derived experiences of users of massively-multiuser online graphical environments. PRESENCE: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 15, 309–329.
Yee, N. (2006b). The psychology of MMORPGs: emotional investment, motivations, relationship formation, and problematic usage. In R. Schroeder & A. Axelsson (Eds.), Avatars at work and play: Collaboration and interaction in shared virtual environments (pp. 187–207). London: Springer.
Young, K. (1998). Caught in the net. New York: Wiley.
Young, K. (2009). Understanding online gaming addiction and treatment issues for adolescents. American Journal of Family Therapy, 37(5), 355–372.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kuss, D.J., Griffiths, M.D. Internet Gaming Addiction: A Systematic Review of Empirical Research. Int J Ment Health Addiction 10, 278–296 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-011-9318-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-011-9318-5