Abstract
Aeolian sand (AS) is locally available in desert area that can be used as road construction material. However, AS is a loose granular material with low bearing capacity which needs to be stabilized. This paper presents a novel study of using geopolymer (GP) and fines to stabilize AS. A series of cyclic triaxial tests was conducted to study the effect of GP and fines contents on cyclic response of stabilized AS. The experimental results show that adding fines into AS can effectively increase the cyclic loading capacity but increase the accumulated axial strain of the mixture; inclusion of GP into the AS-fines mixture greatly enhances the cyclic loading capacity and reduces the accumulated axial strain of the mixture. The shakedown response of the untreated AS changes from plastic shakedown to incremental collapse with increase in cyclic stress ratio (CSR); however, the GP-fines-AS mixture with higher fines and GP contents mainly experiences plastic shakedown. The modulus index of untreated AS or fines-containing AS shows an increase-stable trend with loading cycles, indicating strengthening in the soil matrix, but that of the GP-fines-AS mixture shows increase-stable, stable or decrease-stable trend with loading cycles, depending on the CSR and fines and GP contents. Microcharacterization using scanning electron microscope (SEM) shows that the added fines greatly alter the microstructure of AS by filling the voids and acting as lubricant, which facilitates the movement of AS particles and thus induces larger axial strain. The added GP increases the cyclic loading capacity of the treated soil by inducing a chemical fabric in the treated soils. Increase in fines and GP content results in larger contact area and stronger fabric leading to enhanced stabilizing effect.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Some or all data, models, or code that supports the findings of this study is available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
Abdullah HH, Shahin MA, Walske ML, Karrech A (2021) Cyclic behaviour of clay stabilised with fly-ash based geopolymer incorporating ground granulated slag. Transp Geotech 26:100430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2020.100430
Abdullah H, Shahin M, Walske M (2019) Geo-mechanical behavior of clay soils stabilized at ambient temperature with fly-ash geopolymer-incorporated granulated slag. Soils and Found 59(6):1906–1920. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2019.08.005
Ahmari S, Zhang L (2012) Production of eco-friendly bricks from copper mine tailings through geopolymerization. Constr Build Mater 29:323–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.10.048
Alarcon-Guzman A, Chameau JL, Leonards GA, Frost JD (1989) Shear modulus and cyclic undrained behavior of sands. Soils and Found 29(4):105–119. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.29.4_105
Alkarni A, Elkholy S (2012) Improving geotechnical properties of dune sands through cement stabilization. J Eng Comput Sci 5(1):1–19
Arias-Trujillo J, Matías-Sanchez A, Cantero B, López-Querol S (2020) Effect of polymer emulsion on the bearing capacity of aeolian sand under extreme confinement conditions. Constr Build Mater 236:117473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117473
Arrieta Baldovino JDJ, Izzo R, Rose J, Avanci M (2020) Geopolymers based on recycled glass powder for soil stabilization. Geotech Geol Eng 38:4013–4031. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-020-01274-w
Bagriacik B (2021) Utilization of alkali-activated construction demolition waste for sandy soil improvement with large-scale laboratory experiments. Constr Build Mater 302:124173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124173
Balczár I, Korim T, Kovács A, Mako E (2016) Mechanochemical and thermal activation of kaolin for manufacturing geopolymer mortars – comparative study. Ceram Int 42(14):15367–15375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2016.06.182
Cao Z, Zhang Q, Cai Y, Cui Y, Gu C, Wang J (2022) Impact of fines on the accumulated strain of unsaturated road base aggregate under cyclic loadings. Can Geotech J 59(11):2022–2029. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2021-0297
Chen R, Zhu Y, Lai H, Bao W (2020) Stabilization of soft soil using low-carbon alkali-activated binder. Environ Earth Sci 79:510. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-020-09259-x
Collins I, Boulbibane M (2000) Geomechanical analysis of unbound pavements based on shakedown theory. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 126(1):50–59. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2000)126:1(50)
Cristelo N, Glendinning S, Fernandes L, Pinto AT (2012) Effect of calcium content on soil stabilisation with alkaline activation. Constr Build Mater 29:167–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.10.049
Das BM, Sivakugan N (2018) Principles of Foundation Engineering. Cengage Learning
Ding Y, Dai J, Shi C (2016) Mechanical properties of alkali-activated concrete: a state-of-the-art review. Constr Build Mater 127:68–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.09.121
Duong TV, Tang AM, Cui YJ, Trinh VN, Dupla JC, Calon N, Canou J, Robinet A (2013) Effects of fines and water contents on the mechanical behavior of interlayer soil in ancient railway sub-structure. Soils Found 53(6):868–878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2013.10.006
Duxson P, Fernández-Jiménez A, Provis JL, Lukey GC, Palomo A, Deventer JSJ (2007) Geopolymer technology: the current state of the art. J Mater Sci 42(9):2917–2933. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-006-0637-z
Elipe M, Lopez-Querol S (2014) Aeolian sands: Characterization, options of improvement and possible employment in construction – The State-of-the-art. Constr Build Mater 73:728–739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.10.008
García-Lodeiro I, Palomo A, Fernández-Jiménez A (2015) An overview of the chemistry of alkali-activated cement-based binders. Handb Alkali-Activated Cem Mortars Concr. https://doi.org/10.1533/9781782422884.1.19
Ghrieb A, Mitiche-Kettab R, Bali A (2014) Stabilization and utilization of dune sand in road engineering. Arab J Sci Eng 39(3):1517–1529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-013-0721-z
Gu L, Lv Q, Wang S, Xiang J, Guo L, Jiang J (2021) Effect of sodium silicate on the properties of loess stabilized with alkali-activated fly ash-based. Constr Build Mater 280:122515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122515
Haider G, Sanjayan J, Ranjith PG (2014) Complete triaxial stress–strain curves for geopolymer. Constr Build Mater 69:196–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.07.058
JTG 3430–2020, Test Methods of Soils for Highway Engineering. Profession Standard of the People’s Republic of China. Beijing
Komljenović M, Baščarević Z, Bradić V (2010) Mechanical and microstructural properties of alkali-activated fly ash geopolymers. J Hazard Mater 181(1):35–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.04.064
Krechowiecki-Shaw C, Jefferson I, Royal A, Ghataora G, Alobaidi I (2016) Degradation of soft subgrade soil from slow, large, cyclic heavy-haul road loads: a review. Can Geotech J 53(9):1435–1449. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2015-0234
Liu H, Liu H, Ding W, Xie H (2020) Dynamic characteristics of the rubber-tailings mixture based on dynamic triaxial test. Adv Mater Sci Eng 2020:6653385. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/6653385
Lao J, Huang B, Fang Y, Xu L, Dai J, Shah S (2023) Strain-hardening alkali-activated fly ash/slag composites with ultra-high compressive strength and ultra-high tensile ductility. Cem Concr Res 165:107075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2022.107075
Lao J, Xu L, Huang B, Dai J, Shah S (2022) Strain-hardening ultra-high-performance geopolymer concrete (UHPGC): matrix design and effect of steel fibers. Compos Commun 30:101081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coco.2022.101081
Liu Z, Cai C, Liu F, Fan F (2016) Feasibility study of loess stabilization with fly ash-based geopolymer. J Mater Civil Eng 28:04016003. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001490
Lopez-Querol S, Arias-Trujillo J, Elipe MGM, Matias-Sanchez A, Cantero B (2017) Improvement of the bearing capacity of confined and unconfined cement-stabilized aeolian sand. Constr Build Mater 153:374–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.07.124
Lu Z, Fang R, Yao H, Hu Z, Liu J (2018) Evaluation and analysis of the traffic load-induced settlement of roads on soft subsoils with low embankments. Int J Geomech 18(6):04018043. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001123
Lv Q, Jiang L, Ma B, Zhao B, Huo Z (2018) A study on the effect of the salt content on the solidification of sulfate saline soil solidified with an alkali-activated geopolymer. Constr Build Mater 176:68–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.013
Malisetty RS, Indraratna B, Qi Y, Rujikiatkamjorn C (2023) Shakedown response of recycled rubber-granular waste mixtures under cyclic loading. Géotechnique 2023:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.21.00040
Nath P, Sarker PK (2015) Use of OPC to improve setting and early strength properties of low calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete cured at room temperature. Cem Concr Res 55:205–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2014.08.008
Padmakumar GP, Srinivas K, Uday KV, Iyer KR, Pathak P, Keshava SM, Singh DN (2012) Characterization of aeolian sands from Indian desert. Eng Geol 139–140:38–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2012.04.005
Palanidoss S, Banerjee S (2014) Factors affecting shear modulus degradation of cement treated clay. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 65:181–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2014.06.013
Phetchuay C, Horpibulsuk S, Arulrajah A, Suksiripattanapong C, Udomchai A (2016) Strength development in soft marine clay stabilized by fly ash and calcium carbide residue based geopolymer. Appl Clay Sci 127–128:134–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2016.04.005
Phummiphan I, Horpibulsuk S, Sukmak P, Chinkulkijniwat A, Arulrajah A, Shen S (2016) Stabilisation of marginal lateritic soil using high calcium fly ash-based geopolymer. Road Mater Pavement Des 17(4):877–891. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2015.1132632
Provis J, Bernal S (2014) Geopolymers and related alkali-activated materials. Annu Rev Mater Res 44(1):299–327. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-matsci-070813-113515
Rios S, Ramos C, Viana da Fonseca A, Cruz N, Rodrigues C (2019) Mechanical and durability properties of a soil stabilised with an alkali-activated cement. Eur J Environ Civ Eng 23(2):245–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2016.1275987
Sadeghzadegan R, Naeini S, Mirzaii A (2020) Effect of clay content on the small and mid to large strain shear modulus of an unsaturated sand. Eur J Environ Civ Eng 24(5):631–649. https://doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2017.1415169
Sargent P, Hughes PN, Rouainia M, White ML (2013) The use of alkali activated waste binders in enhancing the mechanical properties and durability of soft alluvial soils. Eng Geol 152(1):96–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2012.10.013
Santa R, Soares C, Riella H (2016) Geopolymers with a high percentage of bottom ash for solidification/immobilization of different toxic metals. J Hazard Mater 318:145–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.06.059
Shalabi FI, Mazher J, Khan K, Alsuliman M, Almustafa I, Mahmoud W, Alomran N (2019) Cement-Stabilized Waste Sand as Sustainable Construction Materials for Foundations and Highway Roads. Materials 12(4):600. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12040600
Shariatmadari N, Mohebbi H, Javadi Akbar A (2021) Surface stabilization of soils susceptible to wind erosion using volcanic ash-based geopolymer. J Mater Civil Eng 33(12):04021345. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003981
Shi C, Jiménez AF, Palomo A (2011) New cements for the 21st century: the pursuit of an alternative to Portland cement. Cem Concr Res 41(7):750–763. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.03.016
Simpson DC, Evans TM (2016) Behavioral thresholds in mixtures of sand and kaolinite clay. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 142(2):04015073. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001391
Skinner L, Chae S, Benmore C, Wenk H, Monteiro P (2010) Nanostructure of calcium silicate hydrates in cements. Phys Rev Lett 104:195502. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.104.195502
Wang Q, Zhong X, Ma H, Wang S, Liu Z, Guo P (2020) Microstructure and reinforcement mechanism of lignin-modified loess. J Mater Civil Eng 32:04020319. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003422
Wang S, Liu B, Zhang Q, Wen Q, Lu X, Xiao K, Ekberg C, Zhang S (2023) Application of geopolymers for treatment of industrial solid waste containing heavy metals: State-of-the-art review. J Cleaner Prod 390:136053. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.136053
Wayal A, Ameta NK, Purohit DG (2012) Dune sand stabilization using bentonite and lime. J Eng Res Stud 3:58–60
Wei X, Liu H, Ku T (2021) Effects of plastic fines content on the engineering properties of cement-stabilized sands. Granul Matter 23(2):46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10035-021-01114-5
Werkmeister S, Dawson AR, Wellner F (2005) Permanent deformation behaviour of granular materials. Road Mater Pavement 6(1):31–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2005.9689998
Yao X, Zhang Z, Zhu H, Chen Y (2009) Geopolymerization process of alkali-metakaolinite characterized by isothermal calorimetry. Thermochim Acta 493:49–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tca.2009.04.002
Yip CK, Lukey GC, van Deventer JSJ (2005) The coexistence of geopolymeric gel and calcium silicate hydrate at the early stage of alkaline activation. Cem Concr Res 35(9):1688–1697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.10.042
Yuan Y, Wang X, Shao H (2011) Study on impact compaction of aeolian sand subgrade and its effect evaluation. Adv Mater Res 378–379:370–373. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.378-379.370
Yuan Y, Wang X, Zhou X (2008) Experimental research on compaction characteristics of aeolian sand. Front Architect Civil Eng China 2(4):359–365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11709-008-0053-3
Zeyad A, Magbool H, Tayeh B, Azevedo A, Abutaleb A, Hussain Q (2021) Production of geopolymer concrete by utilizing volcanic pumice dust. Case Stud Constr Mat 16:e00802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2021.e00802
Zhang H, Yan X (2020) Study on the time effect of aeolian sand subgrade salinization in desert areas. Environ Earth Sci 79:387. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-020-09129-6
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.51708041), the Natural Science Foundation of Shaanxi Province, China (Grant No. 2022JM-228), and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, CHD (Grant No. 300102210213).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Chen, R., Chen, H., Kang, Z. et al. Experimental study on cyclic behavior of aeolian sand stabilized with geopolymer and fines. Acta Geotech. 19, 669–683 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-023-02176-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-023-02176-w