Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Applications of systematic approaches in freshwater conservation planning

  • Review
  • Ecology
  • Published:
Chinese Science Bulletin

Abstract

Systematic conservation planning (SCP) is a widely accepted biodiversity-focused approach to selecting priority areas for protection. Since freshwater ecosystems are globally in urgent need of more conservation and the development of freshwater protected areas has lagged behind such need, SCP is proposed to be widely applied in freshwater conservation. As SCP originates from terrestrial realms, freshwater-specific characteristics should be considered when applied to freshwater systems. The challenges mainly include difficulty in data collection for freshwater species and uncertainty in classification of coarse-filters for representation, while also considering the maintenance of natural connectivity in fresh waters and taking longitudinal, lateral, and climate-change-caused threats into account. Only by addressing these issues may the representativeness and persistence of freshwater biodiversity be ensured in the proposed conservation network. Though challenging at times, the application of systematic approaches in freshwater conservation planning has been widely attempted throughout the last 12 years and applied in different freshwater ecosystems at different scales. In addition, the consideration of freshwater-specific issues has been becoming more and more comprehensive. This review divides the whole process of SCP into successive steps while discussing detailed applications of freshwater planning at each step. First, according to the review, each step attempts to explore many alternatives, such as using surrogates from the species level to the ecosystem level (or a combination within this range) to represent the spatial variation of freshwater biodiversity, deriving raw data from various sources to use for planning, applying different techniques to expand or integrate data, setting various target forms to ensure representativeness or persistence, considering existing protected areas in different ways in the process of planning, using priority principles in various paradigms for both representativeness and persistence, and applying several types of software to the final design of the protection network. Second, applications in each step (except “setting representative targets”) have been more or less tried in considering freshwater-specific issues. For representativeness issues, accepting various sources of information and attempting different ways of data reduction are the main approaches to solving these challenges. For persistence issues, identifying the main ecological processes and threats in freshwater systems and involving them in the process of prioritization are major concerns, and setting targets or priority principles are key steps for taking these persistence issues into account. Finally, more systematic conservation of freshwater systems and new or improved alternatives of each step are expected to enrich this field of study.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Taylor PD (2004) Extinctions in the history of life. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Book  Google Scholar 

  2. Rosenzweig ML (2003) Win-win ecology: how the earth’s species can survive in the midst of human enterprise. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  3. Margules C, Sarkar S (2007) Systematic conservation planning. Cambridge University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  4. Pressey RL, Humphries CJ, Margules CR et al (1993) Beyond opportunism—key principles for systematic reserve selection. Trends Ecol Evol 8:124–128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Neel MC, Cummings MP (2003) Genetic consequences of ecological reserve design guidelines: an empirical investigation. Conserv Genet 4:427–439

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Sarakinos H, Nicholls AO, Tubert A et al (2001) Area prioritization for biodiversity conservation in Quebec on the basis of species distributions: a preliminary analysis. Biodivers Conserv 10:1419–1472

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Huang X, Chen J (2012) Problems facing wetland nature reserves in china in the new era and recommendations for overcoming them. BIodivers Sci 20:774–778

    Google Scholar 

  8. Margules CR, Pressey RL (2000) Systematic conservation planning. Nature 405:243–253

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Austin M, Margules C (1986) Assessing representativeness. In: Usher M (ed) Wildlife conservation evaluation. Chapman and Hall, London, pp 45–67

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  10. Soulé ME (1987) Viable populations for conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Book  Google Scholar 

  11. Linke S, Turak E, Nel J (2011) Freshwater conservation planning: the case for systematic approaches. Freshw Biol 56:6–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Possingham H, Wilson K, Andelman S et al (2006) Protected areas: goals, limitations, and design. In: Groom MJ, Meefe GK, Carroll CR (eds) Principles of conservation biology. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, pp 509–533

    Google Scholar 

  13. Kirkpatrick JB (1983) An iterative method for establishing priorities for the selection of nature reserves—an example from tasmania. Biol Conserv 25:127–134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Vanewright RI, Humphries CJ, Williams PH (1991) What to protect—systematics and the agony of choice. Biol Conserv 55:235–254

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Sarkar S, Pressey RL, Faith DP et al (2006) Biodiversity conservation planning tools: present status and challenges for the future. Annu Rev Environ Res 31:123–159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Zhang L, Ouyang ZY, Xu WH et al (2010) Biodiversity priority areas analysis for amphibians and reptiles in the yangtze basin based on systematic conservation planning idea. Res Environ Yangtze Basin 19:1020–1028

    Google Scholar 

  17. Cowling RM, Pressey RL (2003) Introduction to systematic conservation planning in the cape floristic region. Biol Conserv 112:1–13

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Rondinini C, Pressey RL (2007) Special section: systematic conservation planning in the European landscape: conflicts, environmental changes, and the challenge of countdown 2010. Conserv Biol 21:1404–1405

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Smith RJ, Goodman PS, Matthews WS (2006) Systematic conservation planning: a review of perceived limitations and an illustration of the benefits, using a case study from maputaland, South Africa. Oryx 40:400–410

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Dudgeon D, Arthington AH, Gessner MO et al (2006) Freshwater biodiversity: importance, threats, status and conservation challenges. Biol Rev 81:163–182

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Abell R (2002) Conservation biology for the biodiversity crisis: a freshwater follow-up. Conserv Biol 16:1435–1437

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. McAllister DE, Hamilton AL, Harvey BJ et al (1997) Global freshwater biodiversity: striving for the integrity of freshwater ecosystems. Ocean Voice International, Ottawa

    Google Scholar 

  23. Ricciardi A, Rasmussen JB (1999) Extinction rates of North American freshwater fauna. Conserv Biol 13:1220–1222

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Wetlands TRCo (2013) Ramsar sites in order of their addition to the ramsar list of wetlands of international importance. http://www.ramsar.org/pdf/sitelist_order.pdf

  25. Linke S, Norris RH, Pressey RL (2008) Irreplaceability of river networks: towards catchment-based conservation planning. J Appl Ecol 45:1486–1495

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Abellán P, Sánchez-Fernandez D, Velasco J et al (2007) Effectiveness of protected area networks in representing freshwater biodiversity: the case of a mediterranean river basin (south-eastern Spain). Aquat Conserv Mar Freshw Ecosys 17:361–374

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Keith P (2000) The part played by protected areas in the conservation of threatened French freshwater fish. Biol Conserv 92:265–273

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Nel JL, Reyers B, Roux DJ et al (2009) Expanding protected areas beyond their terrestrial comfort zone: identifying spatial options for river conservation. Biol Conserv 142:1605–1616

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Darwall WRT, Vié JC (2005) Identifying important sites for conservation of freshwater biodiversity: extending the species-based approach. Fisher Manag Ecol 12:287–293

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Sarkar S (2002) Defining “biodiversity”; assessing biodiversity. The Monist 85:131–155

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Sarkar S, Margules C (2002) Operationalizing biodiversity for conservation planning. J Biosci 27:299–308

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Sarkar S (1998) Genetics and reductionism. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Book  Google Scholar 

  33. Arthington A, Pusey KLB, Winemiller RAAHK et al (2004) River fisheries: ecological basis for management and conservation. In: Proceedings of the 2nd international symposium on the management of large rivers for fisheries, vol 1. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Bangkok, pp 31–60

  34. Pringle CM (2001) Hydrologic connectivity and the management of biological reserves: a global perspective. Eco Appl 11:981–998

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Vannote RL, Minshall GW, Cummins KW et al (1980) The river continuum concept. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 37:130–137

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Saunders DL, Meeuwig JJ, Vincent ACJ (2002) Freshwater protected areas: strategies for conservation. Conserv Biol 16:30–41

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Dudgeon D (1992) Endangered ecosystems: a review of the conservation status of tropical Asian rivers. Hydrobiologia 248:167–191

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Moyle PB, Randall PJ (1998) Evaluating the biotic integrity of watersheds in the Sierra Nevada, California. Conserv Biol 12:1318–1326

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Poff NL, Allan JD, Bain MB et al (1997) The natural flow regime. Bioscience 47:769–784

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Fu CZ, Wu JH, Chen JK et al (2003) Freshwater fish biodiversity in the Yangtze River basin of china: patterns, threats and conservation. Biodivers Conserv 12:1649–1685

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Hermoso V, Linke S, Prenda J et al (2011) Addressing longitudinal connectivity in the systematic conservation planning of fresh waters. Freshw Biol 56:57–70

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Cui X, Graf H-F, Langmann B et al (2007) Hydrological impacts of deforestation on the southeast Tibetan Plateau. Earth Interact 11:1–18

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Larsen S, Pace G, Ormerod SJ (2011) Experimental effects of sediment deposition on the structure and function of macroinvertebrate assemblages in temperate streams. River Res Appl 27:257–267

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Somura H, Takeda I, Arnold JG et al (2012) Impact of suspended sediment and nutrient loading from land uses against water quality in the Hii river basin, Japan. J Hydrol 450:25–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Young RG, Quarterman AJ, Eyles RF et al (2005) Water quality and thermal regime of the Motueka River: influences of land cover, geology and position in the catchment. N Z J Mar Freshw Res 39:803–825

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Luís A, Teixeira P, Almeida S et al (2009) Impact of acid mine drainage (AMD) on water quality, stream sediments and periphytic diatom communities in the surrounding streams of Aljustrel mining area (Portugal). Water Air Soil Pollut 200:147–167

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Richter BD, Braun DP, Mendelson MA et al (1997) Threats to imperiled freshwater fauna. Conserv Biol 11:1081–1093

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Thom RM, Borde AB, Richter KO et al (2001) Influence of urbanization on ecological processes in wetlands. In: Wigmosta MS, Burges SJ (eds) Land use and watersheds: human influence on hydrology and geomorphology in urban and forest areas. American Geophysical Union, Washington, pp 5–16

    Google Scholar 

  49. Zhang PC, Shao GF, Zhao G et al (2000) Ecology—China’s forest policy for the 21st century. Science 288:2135–2136

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Kundzewicz ZW, Mata LJ, Arnell NW et al (2008) The implications of projected climate change for freshwater resources and their management. Hydrol Sci J Des Sci Hydrol 53:3–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Mulholland PJ, Best GR, Coutant CC et al (1997) Effects of climate change on freshwater ecosystems of the south-eastern United States and the gulf coast of Mexico. Hydrol Process 11:949–970

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Pitchford JL, Wu C, Lin L et al (2012) Climate change effects on hydrology and ecology of wetlands in the mid-atlantic highlands. Wetlands 32:21–33

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. IPCC (2007) Climate change 2007. Contribution of working groups i, ii and iii to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Synthesis report, IPCC, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  54. Collier KJ (2011) The rapid rise of streams and rivers in conservation assessment. Aquat Conserv Mar Freshw Ecosyst 21:397–400

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Hermoso V, Kennard MJ, Linke S (2012) Integrating multidirectional connectivity requirements in systematic conservation planning for freshwater systems. Divers Distrib 18:448–458

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Simaika JP, Samways MJ, Kipping J et al (2013) Continental-scale conservation prioritization of African dragonflies. Biol Conserv 157:245–254

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Khoury M, Higgins J, Weitzell R (2011) A freshwater conservation assessment of the upper Mississippi river basin using a coarse- and fine-filter approach. Freshw Biol 56:162–179

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Schleupner C, Schneider UA (2013) Allocation of European wetland restoration options for systematic conservation planning. Land Use Policy 30:604–614

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Nogueira C, Buckup PA, Menezes NA et al (2010) Restricted-range fishes and the conservation of Brazilian freshwaters. PLos One 5:e11390

  60. Heiner M, Higgins J, Li X et al (2011) Identifying freshwater conservation priorities in the upper Yangtze River basin. Freshw Biol 56:89–105

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Holland RA, Darwall WRT, Smith KG (2012) Conservation priorities for freshwater biodiversity: the key biodiversity area approach refined and tested for continental Africa. Biol Conserv 148:167–179

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Leathwick JR, Moilanen A, Ferrier S et al (2010) Complementarity-based conservation prioritization using a community classification, and its application to riverine ecosystems. Biol Conserv 143:984–991

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Nel JL, Roux DJ, Maree G et al (2007) Rivers in peril inside and outside protected areas: a systematic approach to conservation assessment of river ecosystems. Divers Distrib 13:341–352

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Sowa SP, Annis G, Morey ME et al (2007) A gap analysis and comprehensive conservation strategy for riverine ecosystems of Missouri. Ecol Monogr 77:301–334

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Turak E, Ferrier S, Barrett T et al (2011) Planning for the persistence of river biodiversity: exploring alternative futures using process-based models. Freshw Biol 56:39–56

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Thieme M, Lehner B, Abell R et al (2007) Freshwater conservation planning in data-poor areas: an example from a remote amazonian basin (Madre de Dios River, Peru and Bolivia). Biol Conserv 135:484–501

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Roux DJ, Nel JL, Ashton PJ et al (2008) Designing protected areas to conserve riverine biodiversity: lessons from a hypothetical redesign of the Kruger national park. Biol Conserv 141:100–117

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Nel JL, Reyers B, Roux DJ et al (2011) Designing a conservation area network that supports the representation and persistence of freshwater biodiversity. Freshw Biol 56:106–124

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Moilanen A, Leathwick JR, Quinn JM (2011) Spatial prioritization of conservation management. Conserv Lett 4:383–393

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Roux D, de Moor F, Cambray J et al (2002) Use of landscape-level river signatures in conservation planning: a South African case study. Ecol Soc 6:6

  71. Amis MA, Rouget M, Lotter M et al (2009) Integrating freshwater and terrestrial priorities in conservation planning. Biol Conserv 142:2217–2226

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Jantke K, Schleupner C, Schneider UA (2011) Gap analysis of European wetland species: priority regions for expanding the natura 2000 network. Biodivers Conserv 20:581–605

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Ausseil A-G, Dymond J, Shepherd J (2007) Rapid mapping and prioritisation of wetland sites in the Manawatu–Wanganui region, new Zealand. Environ Manag 39:316–325

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Ausseil A-GE, Chadderton WL, Gerbeaux P et al (2011) Applying systematic conservation planning principles to palustrine and inland saline wetlands of New Zealand. Freshw Biol 56:142–161

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Lourival R, McCallum H, Grigg G et al (2009) A systematic evaluation of the conservation plans for the pantanal wetland in Brazil. Wetlands 29:1189–1201

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Leathwick J, Collier KJ, Chadderton L (2007) Identifying freshwater ecosystems with nationally important natural heritage values: development of a biogeographic framework. Science & Technical Pub., Department of Conservation, Wellington

    Google Scholar 

  77. Turak E, Marchant R, Barmuta LA et al (2011) River conservation in a changing world: invertebrate diversity and spatial prioritisation in south-eastern coastal Australia. Mar Freshw Res 62:300–311

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Hermoso V, Ward DP, Kennard MJ (2012) Using water residency time to enhance spatio-temporal connectivity for conservation planning in seasonally dynamic freshwater ecosystems. J Appl Ecol 49:1028–1035

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Hermoso V, Pantus F, Olley J et al (2012) Systematic planning for river rehabilitation: integrating multiple ecological and economic objectives in complex decisions. Freshw Biol 57:1–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Esselman PC, Allan JD (2011) Application of species distribution models and conservation planning software to the design of a reserve network for the riverine fishes of northeastern Mesoamerica. Freshw Biol 56:71–88

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Linke S, Pressey RL, Bailey RC et al (2007) Management options for river conservation planning: condition and conservation re-visited. Freshw Biol 52:918–938

    Article  Google Scholar 

  82. Linke S, Watts M, Possingham H (2007) Muddy waters: modifying reserve design algorithms for riverine landscapes. In: Proceedings of the international congress on modelling and simulation (MODSIM 2007), Christchurch, 2007. Modelling and Simulation Society of Australia and New Zealand

  83. Rivers-Moore NA, Goodman PS, Nel JL (2011) Scale-based freshwater conservation planning: towards protecting freshwater biodiversity in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Freshw Biol 56:125–141

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Klein C, Wilson K, Watts M et al (2009) Incorporating ecological and evolutionary processes into continental-scale conservation planning. Ecol Appl 19:206–217

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Perez-Losada M, Bond-Buckup G, Jara CG et al (2009) Conservation assessment of southern South American freshwater ecoregions on the basis of the distribution and genetic diversity of crabs from the genus aegla. Conserv Biol 23:692–702

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. Strecker AL, Olden JD, Whittier JB et al (2011) Defining conservation priorities for freshwater fishes according to taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic diversity. Ecol Appl 21:3002–3013

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Januchowski-Hartley S, Hermoso V, Pressey R et al (2011) Coarse-filter surrogates do not represent freshwater fish diversity at a regional scale in Queensland, Australia. Biol Conserv 144:2499–2511

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. Erős T, Schmera D, Schick RS (2011) Network thinking in riverscape conservation—a graph-based approach. Biol Conserv 144:184–192

    Article  Google Scholar 

  89. Linke S, Kennard MJ, Hermoso V et al (2012) Merging connectivity rules and large-scale condition assessment improves conservation adequacy in river systems. J Appl Ecol 49:1036–1045

    Article  Google Scholar 

  90. Moilanen A, Leathwick J, Elith J (2008) A method for spatial freshwater conservation prioritization. Freshw Biol 53:577–592

    Article  Google Scholar 

  91. Snelder TH, Dey KL, Leathwick JR (2007) A procedure for making optimal selection of input variables for multivariate environmental classifications. Conserv Biol 21:365–375

    Article  Google Scholar 

  92. Turak E, Koop K (2008) Multi-attribute ecological river typology for assessing ecological condition and conservation planning. Hydrobiologia 603:83–104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  93. Elith J, Graham CH, Anderson RP et al (2006) Novel methods improve prediction of species’ distributions from occurrence data. Ecography 29:129–151

    Article  Google Scholar 

  94. McNeely JA (1993) Parks for life: report of the ivth world congress on national parks and protected areas. IUCN, Gland

    Google Scholar 

  95. Pressey RL, Cowling RM, Rouget M (2003) Formulating conservation targets for biodiversity pattern and process in the cape floristic region, South Africa. Biol Conserv 112:99–127

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Soulé ME, Sanjayan MA (1998) Ecology: conservation targets: do they help? Science 279:2060–2061

    Article  Google Scholar 

  97. Dudley N, Gilmour DA, Jeanrenaud JP (1996) Forests for life: the WWF/IUCN forest policy book. WWF-UK, Gland

    Google Scholar 

  98. Kukkala AS, Moilanen A (2013) Core concepts of spatial prioritisation in systematic conservation planning. Biol Rev 88:443–464

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. Game E, Grantham H (2008) Marxan user manual: for marxan version 1.8. 10. and Pacific Marine Analysis and Research Association. University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Vancouver

    Google Scholar 

  100. Vanderkam RPD, Wiersma YF, King DJ (2007) Heuristic algorithms vs. linear programs for designing efficient conservation reserve networks: evaluation of solution optimality and processing time. Biol Conserv 137:349–358

    Article  Google Scholar 

  101. Pressey RL, Watts ME, Barrett TW et al (2009) The c-plan conservation planning system: origins, applications, and possible futures. Spatial conservation prioritization: quantitative methods and computational tools. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 211–234

    Google Scholar 

  102. Garson J, Aggarwal A, Sarkar S (2002) Resnet manual. Ver. 1.2. University of Texas at Austin, Austin

    Google Scholar 

  103. Moilanen A, Meller L, Leppänen J et al (2012) Zonation: spatial conservation planning framework and software v. 3.1, user manual. Biodiversity Conservation Informatics Group, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Biodiversity Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China

    Xinyi Huang, Meng Lu & Jiakuan Chen

  2. Center for Watershed Ecology, Institute of Life Science, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330031, China

    Jiakuan Chen

Authors
  1. Xinyi Huang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Meng Lu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jiakuan Chen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jiakuan Chen.

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Huang, X., Lu, M. & Chen, J. Applications of systematic approaches in freshwater conservation planning. Chin. Sci. Bull. 59, 4256–4270 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11434-014-0444-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11434-014-0444-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation