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Carbon pools and fluxes in the China Seas and adjacent oceans

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Abstract

The China Seas include the South China Sea, East China Sea, Yellow Sea, and Bohai Sea. Located off the Northwestern Pacific margin, covering 4700000 km2 from tropical to northern temperate zones, and including a variety of continental margins/basins and depths, the China Seas provide typical cases for carbon budget studies. The South China Sea being a deep basin and part of the Western Pacific Warm Pool is characterized by oceanic features; the East China Sea with a wide continental shelf, enormous terrestrial discharges and open margins to the West Pacific, is featured by strong cross-shelf materials transport; the Yellow Sea is featured by the confluence of cold and warm waters; and the Bohai Sea is a shallow semi-closed gulf with strong impacts of human activities. Three large rivers, the Yangtze River, Yellow River, and Pearl River, flow into the East China Sea, the Bohai Sea, and the South China Sea, respectively. The Kuroshio Current at the outer margin of the Chinese continental shelf is one of the two major western boundary currents of the world oceans and its strength and position directly affect the regional climate of China. These characteristics make the China Seas a typical case of marginal seas to study carbon storage and fluxes. This paper systematically analyzes the literature data on the carbon pools and fluxes of the Bohai Sea, Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and South China Sea, including different interfaces (land-sea, sea-air, sediment-water, and marginal sea-open ocean) and different ecosystems (mangroves, wetland, seagrass beds, macroalgae mariculture, coral reefs, euphotic zones, and water column). Among the four seas, the Bohai Sea and South China Sea are acting as CO2 sources, releasing about 0.22 and 13.86–33.60 Tg C yr−1 into the atmosphere, respectively, whereas the Yellow Sea and East China Sea are acting as carbon sinks, absorbing about 1.15 and 6.92–23.30 Tg C yr−1 of atmospheric CO2, respectively. Overall, if only the CO2 exchange at the sea-air interface is considered, the Chinese marginal seas appear to be a source of atmospheric CO2, with a net release of 6.01–9.33 Tg C yr−1, mainly from the inputs of rivers and adjacent oceans. The riverine dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) input into the Bohai Sea and Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and South China Sea are 5.04, 14.60, and 40.14 Tg C yr−1, respectively. The DIC input from adjacent oceans is as high as 144.81 Tg C yr−1, significantly exceeding the carbon released from the seas to the atmosphere. In terms of output, the depositional fluxes of organic carbon in the Bohai Sea, Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and South China Sea are 2.00, 3.60, 7.40, and 5.92 Tg C yr−1, respectively. The fluxes of organic carbon from the East China Sea and South China Sea to the adjacent oceans are 15.25–36.70 and 43.93 Tg C yr−1, respectively. The annual carbon storage of mangroves, wetlands, and seagrass in Chinese coastal waters is 0.36–1.75 Tg C yr−1, with a dissolved organic carbon (DOC) output from seagrass beds of up to 0.59 Tg C yr−1. Removable organic carbon flux by Chinese macroalgae mariculture account for 0.68 Tg C yr−1 and the associated POC depositional and DOC releasing fluxes are 0.14 and 0.82 Tg C yr−1, respectively. Thus, in total, the annual output of organic carbon, which is mainly DOC, in the China Seas is 81.72–104.56 Tg C yr−1. The DOC efflux from the East China Sea to the adjacent oceans is 15.00–35.00 Tg C yr−1. The DOC efflux from the South China Sea is 31.39 Tg C yr−1. Although the marginal China Seas seem to be a source of atmospheric CO2 based on the CO2 flux at the sea-air interface, the combined effects of the riverine input in the area, oceanic input, depositional export, and microbial carbon pump (DOC conversion and output) indicate that the China Seas represent an important carbon storage area.

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Acknowledgements

This study is a contribution to the international IMBER project. This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant No. 2016YFA0601400), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 91751207, 91428308, 41722603, 41606153 and 41422603), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant No. 20720170107) and CNOOC Projects (Grant Nos. CNOOC-KJ125FZDXM00TJ001-2014 and CNOOC-KJ125FZDXM00ZJ001-2014).

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  1. State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361101, China

    Nianzhi Jiao, Yantao Liang, Yao Zhang, Rui Zhang, Minhan Dai, Kunshan Gao, Yawei Luo, Tingwei Luo, Nannan Wang & Hongyue Dang

  2. Key Laboratory of Biofuels, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Energy Genetics, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266101, China

    Yantao Liang, Yongyu Zhang, Zenghu Zhang, Long Wang & Chunjie Cao

  3. Institute of Marine Science and Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266273, China

    Jihua Liu & Weidong Zhai

  4. Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology (Ocean University of China), Ministry of Education/Qingdao Collaborative Innovation Center of Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266100, China

    Meixun Zhao

  5. Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China

    Jinming Song & Dongliang Yuan

  6. State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China

    Chao Li

  7. Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Earth System Modeling, Department of Earth System Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China

    Guanghui Lin

  8. South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510301, China

    Xiaoping Huang, Hongqiang Yan, Dongxiao Wang & Si Zhang

  9. Key Laboratory of Marine Sedimentology and Environmental Geology, First Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Qingdao, 266061, China

    Limin Hu

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  1. Nianzhi Jiao
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Correspondence to Nianzhi Jiao.

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Jiao, N., Liang, Y., Zhang, Y. et al. Carbon pools and fluxes in the China Seas and adjacent oceans. Sci. China Earth Sci. 61, 1535–1563 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-018-9190-x

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-018-9190-x

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