Abstract
The concentrations of PAHs in the surface waters from seven river basins in China were summarized from literature published from 2000–2010. Subsequently, the risks from individual PAHs and ΣPAHs in the surface waters of China were quantified by comparing the overlap between the probability distributions of exposure concentrations with the probability distributions of toxicity data. The results show that the concentrations of 15 PAHs in the surface waters ranged from 3.09 to 38139.00 ng L−1, with a geometric mean of 474.93 ng L−1. The significantly higher concentrations of the 15 PAHs occurred in the surface waters from northern China when compared with those from southern China. The concentrations of the 15 PAHs in Chinese surface waters were higher than those in other waters worldwide. The MOS10 (margin of safety) values were calculated at 90th percentile values of exposure concentrations and 10th percentile values of toxicity data, with 5.75, 0.17, 2.33, 0.30, 0.57, 1.74, 1.05, and 0.11 for Ace, Ant, Flu, BaP, Flua, Nap, Phe, and Pyr, respectively. The probabilities of the individual PAH concentrations exceeding the 10th percentile value of the toxicity data were 6.06%, 2.07%, 9.51%, and 2.07% for Nap, Ace, Phe, and Flu, respectively, suggesting minimal risk to aquatic organisms; however, the probabilities of BaP, Ant, Flua, and Pyr exceeding this value were 19.49%, 25.46%, 15.15%, and 30.50%, respectively, indicating potential risks. Among the individual PAHs, the ecological risk from Pyr was the highest, followed by, in descending order of risk, Ant, Bap, Flua, Phe, Nap, Flu, and Ace. Additionally, the combined ecological risk of ΣPAH8 in Chinese surface waters was significantly higher than any that of individual PAHs alone. The MOS10 values in the river basins were < 1, except for the Haihe River Basin, suggesting a potential combined risk from ΣPAH8 in the other six river basins. The probabilities calculation indicate that low to high ecological risk from ΣPAH8 for all aquatic species was reported in the Liaohe River Basin (65.58%), Huaihe River Basin (57.15%), Songhua River Basin (46.49%), Pearl River Basin (38.41%), Yangtze River Basin (25.98%), Yellow River Basin (15.92%), and Haihe River Basin (5.22%).
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Fang M D, Hsieh P C, Ko F C, et al. Sources and distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the sediments of Kaoping River and submarine canyon system, Taiwan. Mar Pollut Bull, 2007, 54: 1179–1189
Khalid M, Zhong H. Contamination and ecotoxicology risks of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Shantou Coastal Waters, China. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol, 2009, 82: 172–178
Jiao W T, Lu Y L, Li J, et al. Identification of sources of elevated concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in an industrial area in Tianjin, China. Environ Monit Assess, 2009, 158: 581–592
Li Y L, Liu J L, Cao Z G, et al. Spatial distribution and health risk of heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the water of the Luanhe River Basin, China. Environ Monit Assess, 2010, 163: 1–13
Xu S S, Liu W X, Tao S. Emission of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in China. Environ Sci Technol, 2006, 40: 702–708
US EPA. Provisional guidance for quantitative risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (EPA/600/R-93/089). Washington DC: United State Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, 1993
Bech S. Regionally Based Assessment of Persistent Toxic Substances (GF/3100-98-07). Kenya: UNEP, 2003. 125–158
Zhang S Y, Zhang Q, Darisaw S, et al. Simultaneous quantification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in Mississippi river water, in New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. Chemosphere, 2007, 66: 1057–1069
Zhang Y X, Tao S. Global atmospheric emission inventory of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) for 2004. Atmos Environ, 2009, 43: 812–819
Skarphédinsdóttir H, Ericson G, Svavarsson J, et al. DNA adducts and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) tissue levels in blue mussels (Mytilus spp.) from Nordic coastal sites. Mar Environ Res, 2007, 64: 479–491
Engraff M, Solere C, Smith K E, et al. Aquatic toxicity of PAHs and PAH mixtures at saturation to benthic amphipods: Linking toxic effects to chemical activity. Aquat Toxicol, 2011, 102: 142–149
Parker R, Post D, Raffensperger C, et al. Ecological committee on FIFRA risk assessment methods. ECOFRAM Terrestrial Draft Report. Washington DC: Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pesticide Programs, 1999
Muñoz I, Martía-Bueno M J, Agüera A, et al. Environmental and human health risk assessment of organic micro-pollutants occurring in a Spanish marine fish farm. Environ Pollut, 2010, 158: 1809–1816
Oughton D H, Agüero A, Avila R, et al. Addressing uncertainties in the ERICA integrated approach. J Environ Radioact, 2008, 99: 1348–1392
Liu A X, Lang Y H, Xue L D, et al. Probabilistic ecological risk assessment and source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons surface sediments from Yellow Sea. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol, 2009, 83: 681–687
Lammert K, Huijbregts M A J, Ragas A J, et al. Spatial variability and uncertainty in ecological risk assessment: A case study on the potential risk of cadmium for the little owl in a Dutch River Flood Plain. Environ Sci Technol, 2005, 39: 2177–2187
Landa G D, Parrella L, Avagliano S, et al. Assessment of the potential ecological risks posed by antifouling booster biocide to the marine ecosystem of the Gulf of Napoli (Italy). Water Air Soil Pollut, 2009, 200: 305–321
Landrum P F, Lotufo G R, Gossiaux D C, et al. Bioaccumulation and critical body residue of PAHs in the amphipod, Diporeia spp: Additional evidence to support toxicity additivity for PAH mixtures. Chemosphere, 2003, 51: 481–489
Weinstein J E, Crawford K D, Garner T R. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contamination in stormwater detention pond sediments in coastal South Carolina. Environ Monit Assess, 2010, 162: 21–35
Bejarano A C, Michel J. Large-scale risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in shoreline sediments from Saudi Arabia: Environmental legacy after twelve years of the Gulf war oil spill. Envrion Pollut, 2010, 158: 1561–1569
Wang L L, Yang Z F, Niu J F, et al. Characterization, ecological risk assessment and source diagnostics of polycyclic aromatic hydro-carbons in water column of the Yellow River Delta, one of the most plenty biodiversity zones in the world. J Hazard Mater, 2009, 169: 460–465
Yang Y, Shi X, Wong P K, et al. An approach to assess ecological risk for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface water from Tianjin. J Environ Sci Health Part A, 2006, 41: 1463–1482
Cao Z G, Liu J L, Luan Y, et al. Pollution characters tics, risk assessment and sources apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydro-carbons (PAHs) in sediments and water of the Luan River, China (in Chinese). Acta Scient Circumstant, 2010, 30: 246–253
Länge R, Hutchinson T H, Scholz N, et al. Analysis of the ecetoc aquatic toxicity (EAT) database II—Comparison of acute to chronic ratios for various acute to chronic ratios for various aquatic organisms and chemical substances. Chemosphere, 1998, 36: 115–127
Swartjes F A. Risk based assessment of soil and groundwater quality in the Netherlands: Standards and remediation urgency. Risk Analysis, 1999, 19: 1235–1249
Carriger J F, Rand G M, Gardinali P R, et al. Pesticides of potential ecological concern in sediment from South Florida Canals: An ecological risk prioritization for aquatic arthropods. Soil Sediment Contam, 2006, 15: 21–45
Schuler L J, Hoang T C, Rand G M. Aquatic risk assessment of copper in freshwater and salterwater ecosystems of South Florida. Ecotoxicol, 2008, 17: 642–659
Hall L W, Scott M C, Killen W D. Ecological risk assessment of copper and cadmium in surface waters of Chesapeake Bay watershed. Environ Toxicol Chem, 1998, 17: 1172–1189
Solomon K R, Takacs P. Probabilistic risk assessment using species sensitivity distributions. In: Posthuma L, Trass T, Suter G W, eds. Species Sensitivity Distribution in Ecotoxicology. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2002. 285–313
Solomon K P, Baker D B, Richards R P, et al. Ecological risk assessment of Atrazine in north American surface waters. Environ Toxicol Chem, 1996, 15: 31–76
Solomon K P, Giesy J, Jones P. Probabilistic risk assessment of agrochemicals in the environment. Crop Protection, 2000, 19: 649–655
Wang B, Yu G, Huang J, et al. Tiered aquatic ecological risk assessment of organochlorine pesticides and their mixture in Jiangsu reach of Huaihe River, China. Environ Monit Assess, 2009, 157: 29–42
Mackay D, Shiu W Y, Ma K C, et al. Handbook of Physical-Chemical Properties and Environmental Fate for Organic Chemicals. 2nd ed. New York: CRC Press, 2006. 315–320
State Environmental Protection Administration of China (SEPA). Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water (GB3838-2002) (in Chinese). 2002
Oliver M À. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in rainwater and surface waters of Lake Maggiore, a subalpine lake in Northern Italy. Chemosphere, 2006, 63: 116–131
Vilanova R M, Fernández P, Martínez C, et al. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in remote mountain lake waters. Water Res, 2001, 35: 3196–3926
Gevao B, Hamilton-Taylor J, Jones K C. Polychlorinated biphenyl and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons deposition to and exchange at the air-water interface of Estheaite water, a small lake in Cumbria UK. Environ Pollut, 1998, 102: 63–75
Manoli E, Samara C, Konstantinou I, et al. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the bulk precipitation and surface waters of Northern Greece. Chemosphere, 2000, 41: 1845–1855
Fernandes M B, Sicre M A, Boireau A, et al. Polyaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) distributions in the Seine River and its estuary. Mar Pollut Bull, 1997, 34: 857–867
McCarthy L H, Williams G R, Stephens J, et al. Baseline studies in the Slave River, NWR, 1990–1994: Part I. Evaluation of the chemical quality of water and suspended sediment from the slave river (NWT). Sci Total Environ, 1997, 197: 21–53
Pham T T, Proulx S, Brochu C, et al. Composition of PCBs and PAHs in the Montreal urban community wastewater and in the surface water of the St. Lawrence River (Canada). Water Air Soil Pollut, 1999, 111: 251–270
Patrolecco L, Ademollo N, Capri S, et al. Occurrence of priority hazardous PAHs in water, suspended particulate matter, sediment and common eels (Anguilla anguilla) in the urban stretch of the River Tiber (Italy). Chemosphere, 2010, 81: 1386–1392
Das S K, Routh J, Roychoudhury A N. Sources and historic changes in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon input in a shallow lake, Zeekoevlei, South Africa. Org Geochem, 2008, 39: 1109–1112
Arias A H, Spetter C V, Freije R H, et al. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in water, mussels (Brachidonetes sp., Tagelus sp.) and fish (Odontesthes sp.) from Bahia Blanca Estuary, Argentina. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci, 2009, 85: 67–81
Zhang Y, Dou H, Chang B, et al. Emission of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from indoor straw burning and emission inventory updating in China. Ann NY Acad Sci, 2008, 1140: 218–227
State Environmental Protection Administration of China (SEPA). Annual Statistical Report on Environment in China (in Chinese). Beijing: China Environmental Science Press, 2008. 156–160
Erickson R J, Ankley G T, Defoe D L, et al. Additive toxicity of binary mixtures of phototoxic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to the oligochaete Lumbriculus variegates. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 1999, 154: 97–105
Knutzen J. Effects on marine organisms from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other constituents of waste water from aluminium smelters with examples from Norway. Sci Total Environ, 1995, 163: 107–122
Gewurtz S B, Lazar R, Haffner G D. Comparison of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon and polychlorinated dynamics in benthic invertebrates of Lake Erie, USA. Environ Toxicol Chem, 2000, 19: 2943–2950
Akkanen J, Kukkonen J V K. Measuring the bioavailability of two hydrophobic organic compounds in the resence of dissolved organic matter. Environ Toxicol Chem, 2003, 22: 518–524
Wu F C. National Organic Matters and their Relationship with Pollutants in the Environment (in Chinses). Beijing: Science Press, 2009. 273–303
Baumard P, Budzinski H, Garrigues P, et al. Concentrations of PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) in various marine organisms in relation to those in sediments and to trophic level. Mar Pollut Bull, 1998, 36: 951–960
Hall Jr A, Jkendall H, Solomon R, et al. Atrazine in North American Surface Waters: A Probabilistic Aquatic Ecological Risk Assessment. Pensacola: Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) Press, 2005. 23–26
Duboudin C, Ciffroy P, Magaud H. Effects of data manipulation and statistical methods on species sensitivity distributions. Environ Toxicol Chem, 2004, 23: 489–499
Poletika N N, Woodburn K B, Henry K S. An ecological risk assessment for chlorpyrifos in an agriculturally dominated tributary of the San Joaquin River. Risk Analysis, 2002, 22: 291–308
Ankley G T, Call D J, Cox J S, et al. Organic carbon partitioning as a basis for predicting the toxicity of chlorpyrifos in sediments. Environ Toxicol Chem, 1994, 13: 621–626
Brink V D, Hose G C. Confirming the species-sensitivity distribution concept for endosulfan using laboratory, Microcosm, and field data. Environ Contam Toxicol, 2004, 47: 511–520
Pan B, Xing B S, Liu W X, et al. Investigating interactions of phenanthrene with dissolved organic matter: Limitations of stern-volmer plot. Chemosphere, 2007, 69: 1555–15621
Lee C L, Kuo L J, Wang H L, et al. Effects of ionic strength on the binding of phenanthrene and pyrene to humic substances-three-stage variation model. Water Res, 2003, 37: 4250–4258
Wang X L, Cook R, Tao S, et al. Sorption of organic contaminants by biopolymers: Role of polarity, structure and spatial arrangement. Chemosphere, 2007, 66: 1476–1484
Gao J J, Liu L H, Liu X R, et al. Occurrence and distribution of organochlorine pesticides-lindane, p, p′-DDT, and heptachlor epoxide-in surface water of China. Environ Int, 2008, 34: 1097–1103
Zhong W J, Wang D H, Xu X W, et al. Screening level ecological risk assessment for phenols in surface water of the Taihu Lake. Chemosphere, 2010, 80: 998–1005
Arnot J A, Mackay D, Webster E. Screening level risk assessment model for chemicals fate and effects in the environment. Environ Sci Technol, 2006, 40: 2316–232
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Guo, G., Wu, F., He, H. et al. Distribution characteristics and ecological risk assessment of PAHs in surface waters of China. Sci. China Earth Sci. 55, 914–925 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-012-4434-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-012-4434-z