Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Visual design as a holistic experience: how students’ emotional responses to the visual design of instructional materials are formed

  • Development Article
  • Published:
Educational technology research and development Aims and scope Submit manuscript

This article has been updated

Abstract

Despite the recognized importance of emotion in learning (Kim and Pekrun in Handbook of research on educational communications and technology, 4th ed., Springer, pp. 65–75, 2014), instructional material design research primarily focuses on cognition, tending to ignore the affective dimension (Brom et al. in Educ Res Rev 25:100–119, 2018). To understand the complex phenomenon of how students’ emotional responses to instructional materials are formed, this qualitative thematic study explored factors thought to affect their visual perceptions of instructional materials by utilizing the general framework of approach and avoidance motivation. Four sets of printed instructional materials were prepared, each with the same content drawn from finite mathematics, but with different visual designs. A total of 25 students were invited to a laboratory room and asked to select and study one out of the four sets of materials. The entire process was observed, and students were interviewed to share their experiences. The results showed that students selected instructional materials based on their holistic impression of the materials and on their individual expectations as shaped by previous experiences. For example, students who had math anxiety selected materials that did not look like math textbooks, although opinions regarding which materials did or did not look like textbooks were diverse due to different material experiences. While existing studies tend to be deterministic about the attractiveness of visual materials (e.g., Plass et al. in Learn Instruct 29:128–140, 2014), the present study confirms that there is no universal design that elicits comfortable experiences for everyone. This paper concludes with sets of guidelines and methods to accommodate students’ diverse visual perceptions, which is critical for enhancing learning as a holistic experience.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8

Similar content being viewed by others

Change history

  • 05 March 2022

    Due to an error during production, the bibliographic data provided for the Kim and Pekrun reference in this article’s abstract was incorrect in the article as originally published and has been updated.

References

  • Anglin, G. J., Vaez, H., & Cunningham, K. L. (2004). Visual representations and learning: The role of static and animated graphics. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (2nd ed., pp. 865–916). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

  • Barriball, K. L., & While, A. (1994). Collecting data using a semi-structured interview: A discussion paper. Journal of Advanced Nursing-Institutional Subscription, 19(2), 328–335. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.1994.tb01088.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Belland, B. R., Kim, C., & Hannafin, M. J. (2013). A framework for designing scaffolds that improve motivation and cognition. Educational Psychologist, 48(4), 243–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2013.838920

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, M. J. (2014). Instructional message design: Past, present, and future relevance. In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. Elen, & M. J. Bishop (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (4th ed., pp. 373–383). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_30

  • Braden, R. A. (2001). Visual literacy. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (1st ed., pp. 491–520). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

  • Brand, S., Reimer, T., & Opwis, K. (2007). How do we learn in a negative mood? Effects of a negative mood on transfer and learning. Learning and Instruction, 17(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.11.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brom, C., Stárková, T., & D’Mello, S. K. (2018). How effective is emotional design? A meta-analysis on facial anthropomorphisms and pleasant colors during multimedia learning. Educational Research Review, 25, 100–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.09.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, A., & Green, T. D. (2011). The essentials of instructional design: Connecting fundamental principles with process and practice (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall.

  • Cowan, N. (2001). The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24(1), 87–114. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X01003922

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Creswell, J. W. (2012). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.). Sage Publications, Inc.

  • Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Robinson, R. E. (1991). The art of seeing: An interpretation of the aesthetic encounter. J. Paul Getty Museum.

  • Davou, B. (2007). Interaction of emotion and cognition in the processing of textual material. Meta, 52(1), 37–47. https://doi.org/10.7202/014718ar

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dewey, J. (2005). Art as experience. Berkley Publishing Group. (Original work published 1934).

  • Elliot, A. J. (2008). Handbook of approach and avoidance motivation. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203888148

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, R., & Timulak, L. (2015). Descriptive and interpretive approaches to qualitative research (Vol. 1). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/med:psych/9780198527565.003.0011

  • Feltman, R., & Elliot, A. J. (2012). Approach and avoidance motivation. In N.M. Seel (Eds.), Encyclopedia of the sciences of learning. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_1749

  • Fleming, M. L., & Levie, W. H. (1993). Instructional message design: Principles from the behavioral and cognitive sciences (2nd ed.). Educational Technology Publications.

  • Fleming, M. (1967). Classification and analysis of instructional illustrations. Educational Technology Research and Development, 15(3), 246–258. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02768609

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frick T. W. (2018) The theory of totally integrated education (TIE). In M. Spector, B. Lockee, & M. Childress. (Eds.) Learning, design, and technology. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17727-4_69-2

  • Gatto, J. A., Porter, A. W., & Selleck, J. (2011). Exploring visual design: The elements and principles (4th ed.). Davis Publications.

  • Grabinger, R. S., & Amedeo, D. (1988). CRT text layout: Perceptions of viewers. Computers in Human Behavior, 4(3), 189–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/0747-5632(88)90013-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenspan, S. I., & Benderly, B. L. (1998). The growth of the mind: And the endangered origins of intelligence. Da Capo Press.

  • Güney, Z. (2019). Visual literacy and visualization in instructional design and technology for learning environments. European Journal of Contemporary Education, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.13187/ejced.2019.1.103

  • Hartley, J. (2004). Designing instructional and informational text. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (2nd ed., pp. 917–947). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

  • Hassenzahl, M. (2004). The interplay of beauty, goodness, and usability in interactive products. Human-Computer Interaction, 19(4), 319–349. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327051hci1904_2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hassenzahl, M., & Monk, A. (2010). The inference of perceived usability from beauty. Human-Computer Interaction, 25(3), 235–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/07370024.2010.500139

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hilton, J. (2016). Open educational resources and college textbook choices: A review of research on efficacy and perceptions. Educational Technology Research and Development, 64(4), 573–590. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-016-9434-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hopko, D. R., Mahadevan, R., Bare, R. L., & Hunt, M. K. (2003). The abbreviated math anxiety scale (AMAS) construction, validity, and reliability. Assessment, 10(2), 178–182. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191103010002008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keller, J. M., & Burkman, E. (1993). Motivation principles. In M. L. Fleming & W. H. Levie (Eds.), Instructional message design: Principles from the behavioral and cognitive sciences (2nd ed., pp. 3 –53). Educational Technology Publications.

  • Keller, J. M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of motivational design. Journal of Instructional Development, 10(3), 2–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02905780

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, C., & Pekrun, R. (2014). Emotions and motivation in learning and performance. In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. Elen, & M. J. Bishop (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (4th ed., pp. 65–75). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_6

  • Koffka, K. (1935). Principles of gestalt psychology. Harcourt Brace.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lavie, T., & Tractinsky, N. (2004). Assessing dimensions of perceived visual aesthetics of web sites. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 60(3), 269–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2003.09.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leutner, D. (2014). Motivation and emotion as mediators in multimedia learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 174–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.05.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lohr, L. L. (2008). Creating graphics for learning and performance: Lessons in visual literacy (2nd ed.). Pearson.

  • Lonsdale, M. dos S., Dyson, M. C., & Reynolds, L. (2006). Reading in examination-type situations: The effects of text layout on performance. Journal of Research in Reading, 29(4), 433–453. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.2006.00317.x

  • Lonsdale, M. D. S. (2014). Typographic features of text: Outcomes from research and practice. Visible Language, 48(3), 29–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maccia, G. S. (1987). Correspondence: Genetic epistemology of intelligent natural systems. Systems Research, 4(3), 213–218. https://doi.org/10.1002/sres.3850040308

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Magner, U. I. E., Glogger, I., & Renkl, A. (2016). Which features make illustrations in multimedia learning interesting? Educational Psychology, 36(9), 1596–1613. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2014.933177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multimedia learning (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511811678

  • Mayer, R. E. (2014). Incorporating motivation into multimedia learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 171–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.04.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merleau-Ponty, M. (2010). Phenomenology of perception. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203720714

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043158

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2010). Techniques that increase generative processing In multimedia learning: Open questions for cognitive load research. In J. L. Plass, R. Moreno, & R. Brünken (Eds.), Cognitive load theory (pp. 153–177). Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, G. R., & Ross, S. M. (2014). Research-based instructional perspectives. In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. Elen, & M. J. Bishop (Eds.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (4th ed., pp. 31–38). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_3

  • Nakarada-Kordich, I., & Lobb, B. (2005). Effect of Perceived attractiveness of web interface design on visual search of web sites. CHINZ ’05: Proceedings of the 6th ACM SIGCHI New Zealand Chapter’s International Conference on Computer-Human Interaction: Making CHI Natural, 25–27. https://doi.org/10.1145/1073943.1073949

  • Norman, D. A. (2002). Emotion & design: Attractive things work better. Interactions, 9(4), 36–42. https://doi.org/10.1145/543434.543435

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oh, E., & Reeves, T. C. (2014). Generational differences and the integration of technology in learning, instruction, and performance. In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. Elen, & M. J. Bishop (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (4th ed., pp. 819–828). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_66

  • Osler II, J. E., & Wright, M. A. (2015). Dynamic neuroscientific systemology: Using tri-squared meta-analysis and innovative instructional design to develop a novel distance education model for the systemic creation of engaging online learning environments. I-Manager’s Journal of Educational Technology, 12(2), 42–55. https://doi.org/10.26634/jet.12.2.3614

  • Park, O., & Lee, J. (2004). Adaptive instructional systems. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (2nd ed., pp. 651–684). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

  • Pessoa, L. (2008). On the relationship between emotion and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(2), 148–158. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2317

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peters, D., Calvo, R. A., & Ryan, R. M. (2018). Designing for motivation, engagement and wellbeing in digital experience. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 797. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00797

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plass, J. L., Heidig, S., Hayward, E. O., Homer, B. D., & Um, E. (2014). Emotional design in multimedia learning: Effects of shape and color on affect and learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 128–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.02.006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plass, J. L., & Kalyuga, S. (2019). Four Ways of Considering Emotion in Cognitive Load Theory. Educational Psychology Review, 31(2), 339–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09473-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reeves, T. C. (2006). How do you know they are learning? The importance of alignment in higher education. International Journal of Learning Technology, 2(4), 294–309. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJLT.2006.011336

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rey, G. D. (2012). A review of research and a meta-analysis of the seductive detail effect. Educational Research Review, 7(3), 216–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2012.05.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robson, C., & McCartan, K. (2016). Real World Research (4th ed). Wiley.

  • Rock, D. M. (2008). SCARF: A brain-based model for collaborating with and influencing others. NeuroLeadershipjournal, 1, 1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saldana, J. (2015). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc.

  • Saunders, B., Sim, J., Kingstone, T., Baker, S., Waterfield, J., Bartlam, B., Burroughs, H., & Jinks, C. (2018). Saturation in qualitative research: Exploring its conceptualization and operationalization. Quality & Quantity, 52(4), 1893–1907. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-017-0574-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schenkman, B. N., & Jonsson, F. U. (2000). Aesthetics and preferences of web pages. Behavioral Information & Technology, 19, 367–377. https://doi.org/10.1080/014492900750000063

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, S., Beege, M., Nebel, S., & Rey, G. D. (2018). A meta-analysis of how signaling affects learning with media. Educational Research Review, 23, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2017.11.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seemiller, C., & Grace, M. (2016). Generation Z goes to college. Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sonderegger, A., & Sauer, J. (2010). The influence of design aesthetics in usability testing: Effects on user performance and perceived usability. Applied Ergonomics, 41(3), 403–410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2009.09.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spradley, J. P. (1979). The ethnographic interview. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

  • Steiner, E. (1981). Educology of the free. Philosophical Library.

  • Stribley, M. (2015, May 12). 50 meticulous style guides every startup should see before launching. https://www.canva.com/learn/50-meticulous-style-guides-every-startup-see-launching/

  • Udsen, L. E., & Jørgensen, A. H. (2005). The aesthetic turn: Unraveling recent aesthetic approaches to human-computer interaction. Digital Creativity, 16(4), 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/14626260500476564

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Venkatesan, T., Wang, Q. J., & Spence, C. (2020). Does the typeface on album cover influence expectations and perception of music? Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000330

  • Williams, M. D. (2001). Learner-control and instructional technologies. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (1st ed., pp. 957–983). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

  • Winn, W. (1993). Perception principles. In M. L. Fleming & W. H. Levie (Eds.), Instructional message design: Principles from the behavioral and cognitive sciences (2nd ed., pp. 55–126). Educational Technology Publications.

  • Winn, W. (2002). Current trends in educational technology research: The study of learning environments. Educational Psychology Review, 14(3), 331–351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, C., Luo, L., Vadillo, M. A., Yu, R., & Shanks, D. R. (2021). Testing (quizzing) boosts classroom learning: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 147(4), 399–435. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000309

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

I sincerely appreciate all the generous support from my mentors (including my reviewers, who have provided me with a considerable amount of feedback that allowed me to improve my manuscript), friends, and family members in the process of completing this project. I would especially like to thank my mentor Elizabeth Boling for her thoughtful and dedicated guidance.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Technical Communication and Interactive Design, Kennesaw State University, 1100 South Marietta Pkwy DM 9045, Marietta, GA, 30060, USA

    Kei Tomita

Authors
  1. Kei Tomita
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kei Tomita.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The author declares that she has no conflict of interest. This study is unfunded.

Ethical approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was approved by the Indiana University-Bloomington Institutional Review Board (Study #1603159472).

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Consent to publish

Not applicable. This manuscript does not include identifying information about participants.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Due to an error during production, the bibliographic data provided for the Kim and Pekrun reference in this article’s abstract was incorrect in the article as originally published and has been updated.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Tomita, K. Visual design as a holistic experience: how students’ emotional responses to the visual design of instructional materials are formed. Education Tech Research Dev 70, 469–502 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-022-10088-x

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-022-10088-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation