Abstract
A deeper understanding of what factors influence metacognition has never become more pressing than in today’s digital era, in which information flows constantly and quickly. To this end, the present study explored the role of culture in mediating how individuals experience metacognitive phenomena. For this purpose, the International Group on Metacognition (IGM) developed a rigorous standard international protocol to measure metacognition in Spanish-speaking university students (N = 1,461) in 12 cultures in Latin-America and Spain, employing both a subjective measure of metacognitive awareness (the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory [MAI]) and various metrics of objective metacognitive monitoring across three domains of learning—vocabulary, probabilities (mathematical reasoning), and paper folding (visual-spatial reasoning). Data were subsequently compared across the various cultures with subjective metacognitive awareness and the raw frequencies of the four mutually exclusive cells of the 2 × 2 performance/judgment array as outcomes. Results revealed significant differences regarding both macro-level components of subjective metacognitive awareness, knowledge and regulation of cognition. Further, significant and meaningful differences emerged for the raw frequencies of the four mutually exclusive cells as a function of culture, especially for vocabulary, in which differences among cultures emerged for all four cells. Implications for metacognitive research, theory, and practice are discussed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Data associated with this research are available to anyone upon reasonable request.
Code availability
Not applicable.
References
Ackerman, R., & Goldsmith, M. (2011). Metacognitive regulation of text learning: On screen versus on paper. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 17(1), 18–32. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022086
Akin, A., Abaci, R., & Çetin, B. (2007). The validity and reliability of the Turkish version of the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 7, 671–678. https://toad.halileksi.net/sites/default/files/pdf/metacog-nitive-awareness-inventory-toad.pdf . Accessed 12 May 2022.
Baird, B., Smallwood, J., Gorgolewski, K. J., & Margulies, D. S. (2013). Medial and lateral networks in anterior prefrontal cortex support metacognitive ability for memory and perception. Journal of Neuroscience, 33(42), 16657–16665. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0786-13.2013
Balcikanli, C. (2011). Metacognitive awareness inventory for teachers (MAIT). Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 9(3), 1309–1332. http://repositorio.ual.es/bitstream/handle/10835/733/Art_25_563.pdf?sequence=1. Accessed 12 May 2022
Boekaerts, M., & Rozendaal, J. S. (2010). Using multiple calibration measures in order to capture the complex picture of what affects students’ accuracy of feeling of confidence. Learning and Instruction, 20(4), 372–382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.03.002
Brown, A. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self-regulation, and other more mysterious mechanisms. In F. Weinert & R. Kluwe (Eds.), Metacognition, motivación and understanding (pp. 65–116). Lawrence erlbaum.
Buratti, S. (2013). Meta-metacognition: The regulation of confidence realism in episodic and semantic memory. Gothenburg.
Buratti, S., & Allwood, C. (2012). The accuracy of meta-metacognitive judgments: Regulating the realism of confidence. Cognitive Processing, 13(3), 243–253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-012-0440-5
Buratti, S., & Allwood, C. (2015). Regulating metacognitive processes-support for a meta-metacognitive ability. In A. Peña-Ayala (Ed.), Metacognition: Fundaments, applications and trends. A prolife of the current state -of-the-art (pp. 17–35). Springer.
Callan, G. L., Marchant, G. J., Finch, W. H., & German, R. L. (2016). Metacognition, strategies, achievement, and demographics: Relationships across countries. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 16(5), 1485–1502. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2016.5.0137
Cer, E. (2019). The instruction of writing strategies: The effect of the metacognitive strategy on the writing skills of pupils in secondary education. SAGE Open, 9(2), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019842681
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Oxford: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203771587
Dean O’Loughlin, V., & Griffith, L. (2020). Developing student metacognition through reflective writing in an upper-level undergraduate anatomy course. Anat Sci Educ, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1002/ase.1945
Del Cul, A., Dehaene, S., Reyes, P., Bravo, E., & Slachevsky, A. (2009). Causal role of prefrontal cortex in the threshold for access to consciousness. Brain, 132(Pt 9), 2531–2540. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awp111
Desoete, A., & De Craene, B. (2019). Metacognition and mathematics education: An overview. ZDM, 51, 565–575. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-019-01060-w
Dinsmore, D. L., & Parkinson, M. M. (2013). What are confidence judgments made of? Students’ explanations for their confidence ratings and what that means for calibration. Learning and Instruction, 24, 4–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.06.001
Dunlosky, J., Bottiroli, S., & Hartwing, M. (2009). A call for representative desing in education science. In Handbook of Metacognition in Education (pp. 430–440). Routledge.
Dunlosky, J., & Metcalfe, J. (2009). Metacognition, A Texbook for cognitive, educational, life span, & applied psychology. Sage publication, Inc.
Dunlosky, J., & Tauber, S. (2012). Understanding people’s metacognitive judgments: An isomechanism framework and its implications for applied and theoretical research. In T. Perfect & S. Lindsay (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of applied memory (pp. 1–10). Sage publications Inc.
Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13, 277–287. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040.13.4.277
Efklides, A. (2011). Interactions of metacognition with motivation and affect in self-regulated learning: The MASRL model. Educational Psychologist, 46, 6–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2011.538645
Ekstrom, R. B., French, J. W., & Harman, H. H. (1976). Manual for kit of factor-referenced cognitive tests. Educational Testing Service.
Fatehi, K., Priestley, J. L., & Taasoobshirazi, G. (2020). The expanded view of individualism and collectivism: One, two, or four dimensions? International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 20(1), 7–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470595820913077
Flavell, J. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906–911. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.34.10.906
Flavell, J. (1987). Speculation about nature and develpment of metacognition. In F. Weinert & R. Kluwe (Eds.), Metacognition, motivación and understanding (pp. 21–29). Hillsdale.
Fleming, S. M., Weil, R. S., Nagy, Z., Dolan, R. J., & Rees, G. (2010). Relating introspective accuracy to individual differences in brain structure. Science, 329(5998), 1541–1543. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1191883
Fleming, S., Ryu, J., Golfinos, J., & Blackmon, K. (2014). Domain-specific impairment in metacognitive accuracy following anterior prefrontal lesions. Brain, 137, 2811–2822. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awu221
Fleur, D. S., Bredeweg, B., & van den Bos, W. (2021). Metacognition: Ideas and insights from neuro- and educational sciences. NPJ Science of Learning, 6, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-021-00089-5
Follmer, D. J., & Sperling, R. (2016). The mediating role of metacognition in the relationship between executive function and self-regulated learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 86(4), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12123
Follmer, D. J., & Sperling, R. (2019). Examining the role of self-regulated learning microanalysis in the assessment of learners’ regulation. Journal of Experimental Education, 87(2). https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2017.1409184
Gutierrez, A. P., & Price, A. F. (2017). Calibration between undergraduate students’ prediction of and actual performance: The role of gender and performance attributions. The Journal of Experimental Education, 85, 486–500. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2016.1180278
Gutierrez, A. P., & Schraw, G. (2015). Effects of strategy training and incentives on students’ performance, confidence, and calibration. The Journal of Experimental Education, 83(3), 386–404. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2014.907230
Gutierrez, A., Schraw, G., Kuch, F., & Richmond, A. (2016). A two-process model of metacognitive monitoring: Evidence for general accuracy and error factors. Learning and Instruction, 44, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.02.006
Gutierrez de Blume, A. P. (2020). Efecto de la instrucción de estrategias cognitivas en la precisión del monitoreo de los alumnos universitarios estadounidenses. Revista Tesis Psicológica, 15(2), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.37511/tesis.v15n2a9
Gutierrez de Blume, A., & Montoya, D. (2021). Validación y examen de la estructura factorial del Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) en una muestra colombiana de estudiantes universitarios. Psicogente, 24(46), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.17081/psico.24.46.4881
Gutierrez de Blume, A. P., Schraw, G., Kuch, F., & Richmond, A. S. (2021). General accuracy and general error factors in metacognitive monitoring and the role of time on task in predicting metacognitive judgments. CES Psicología, 14(2), 179–208. https://doi.org/10.31857/S0026898420010176
Gutierrez de Blume, A., Soto, C., Ramírez, C., Rodríguez, F., & Pino, P. (2021). Reading competence and its impact on writing: A approach towards mental representation in literacy tasks. Journal of Research in Reading, 44(3), 617–635. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12359
Hacker, D., Bol, L., & Bahbahani, K. (2008). Explaining calibration accuracy in classroom contexts: The effects of incentives, reflection, and explanatory style. Metacognition and Learning, 2, 101–121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-008-9021-5
Hadwin, A. F., & Webster, E. A. (2013). Calibration in goal setting: Examining the nature of judgments of confidence. Learning and Instruction, 24, 37–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.10.001
Hambleton, R. K. (1996). Adaptación de tests para su uso en diferentes idiomas y culturas: Fuentes de error, posibles soluciones y directrices prácticas. In J. Muñiz (Ed.), Psicometría (pp. 207–238). Universitas.
Hannah, C. L., & Shore, B. M. (1995). Metacognition and high intellectual ability: Insights from the study of learning-disabled gifted students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 39(2), 95–109. https://doi.org/10.1177/001698629503900206
Harrison, G., & Vallin, L. (2018). Evaluating the metacognitive awareness inventory using empirical factor-structure evidence. Metacognition Learning, 13, 15–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-017-9176-z
Heyes, C., Bang, D., Shea, N., Frith, C., & Fleming, F. (2020). Knowing ourselves together: The cultural origins of metacognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(20), 349–362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2020.02.007
Jankowski, T., & Holas, P. (2014). Metacognitive model of mindfulness. Consciousness and Cognition, 28, 64–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2014.06.005
Kelemen, W. L., Frost, P. J., & Weaver, C. A. (2000). Individual differences in metacognition: Evidence against a general metacognitive ability. Memory & Cognition, 28(1), 92–107. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03211579
Koriat, A. (1997). Monitoring one’s own knowledge during study: A cue-utilization approach to judgments of learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 126(4), 349–370. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.126.4.349
Koriat, A. (2012). The self-consistency model of subjective confidence. Psychological Review, 119, 80–113. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025648
Kuhn, D. (2000). Metacognitive development. American Psychological Society, 9(5), 178–181. https://www.tc.columbia.edu/faculty/dk100/facultyprofile/files/Kuhn2000_Metacognitivedevelopment.pdf. Accessed 12 May 2022.
Lau, H., & Rosenthal, D. (2011). Empirical support for higher-order theories of conscious awareness. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(8), 365–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.05.009
Lima Filho, R. N., & Bruni, A. L. (2015). Metacognitive awareness inventory: Trans- lation and validation from a confirmatory analysis. Psicologia: Ciência e Profissão, 35, 1275–1293. https://doi.org/10.1590/1982-3703002292013
Lundeberg, M., & Mohan, L. (2009). Context matters: Gender and cross-cultural differences in confidence. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. C. Graesser (Eds.), Handbook of metacognition in education (pp. 221–239). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Marshalek, B., Lohman, D. F., & Snow, R. E. (1983). The complexity continuum in the radex and hierarchical models of intelligence. Intelligence, 7, 107–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-2896(83)90023-5
McCurdy, L. Y., Maniscalco, B., Metcalfe, J., Liu, K. Y., de Lange, F. P., & Lau, H. (2013). Anatomical coupling between distinct metacognitive systems for memory and visual perception. Journal of Neuroscience, 30(33), 1897–1906. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1890-12.2013
Meher, V., & Baral, R. (2020). Cultural adaptation and validation of the metacognitive awareness inventory for higher secondary school students of Odisha. I-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology, 14(2), 34–46. https://doi.org/10.26634/jpsy.14.2.17631
Mesquita, B. (2001). Emotions in collectivist and individualist contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(1), 68–74. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.1.68
Muñiz, J., Elosua, P., & Hambleton, R. (2013). Directrices para la traducción y adapta- ción de los tests: Segunda edición. Psicothema, 25(2), 151–157. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2013.24
Muñiz, J., Elosua, P., Padilla, J.-L., & Hambleton, R. K. (2016). Test adaptation standards for cross-lingual assessment. In C. S. Wells & M. Faulkner-Bond (Eds.), Educational measurement: From foundations to future (pp. 291–304). The Guilford Press.
Nelson, T. O., & Leonesio, J. (1988). Allocation of self-paced study time and the " Labor-in-Vain Effect ". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 14(4), 676–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.14.4.676
Nelson, T., & Narens, L. (1990). Metamemory: A theoretical framework and new findings. In G. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (pp. 125–173). Academic Press.
Nelson, T., & Narens, L. (1994). Why investigate metacognitive? In J. Metcalfe & A. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. 1–25). The MIT Press Cambridge. USA.
Öz, H. (2016). The importance of personality traits in students’ perceptions of metacognitive awareness. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 232, 655–667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.090
Peña-Ayala, A., & Cárdenas, L. (2015). A conceptual model of the metacognitive activity. In A. Peña-Ayala (Ed.), Metacognition: Fundaments, applications, and trends. A prolife of the current state -of-the-art (pp. 39–64). Springer.
Pieschl, S. (2009). Metacognitive calibration—an extended conceptualization and potential applications. Metacognition and Learning, 4, 3–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-008-9030-4
Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D., Garcia, T., & Mckeachie, W. (1993). Reliability and predictive validity of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53(3), 801–813. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164493053003024
Proust, J., & Fortier, M. (2018). Metacognitive diversity: An interdisciplinary approach. Oxford University Press.
Quiles, C., Verdoux, H., & Prouteau, A. (2014). Assessing metacognition during a cognitive task: Impact of “ On-line ” metacognitive questions on neuropsychological performances in a non-clinical sample, (March 2015). https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617714000290
Rasekh, Z., & Ranjbari, R. (2003). Metacognitive strategy training for vocabulary learning. TESL-EJ, 7(2), A-5. http://www.teslej.org/wordpress/issues/volume7/ej26/ej26a5/?em_x=22. Accessed 12 May 2022.
Roebers, C. M. (2017). Executive function and metacognition: Towards a unifying framework of cognitive self-regulation. Developmental Review, 45, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2017.04.001
Saraç, S., & Karakelle, S. (2012). On-line and off-line assessment of metacognition. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 4(2), 301–315. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1068610.pdf. Accessed 12 May 2022.
Sawyer, K. (2014). The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences. Cambridge University Press.
Schraw, G. (2002). Promoting general metacognitive awareness. In H. Hartman (Ed.), Metacognition in learning and instruction: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 3–16). Kluwer Academic.
Schraw, G. (2009). Measuring metacognitive judgments. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. C. Graesser (Eds.), Handbook of metacognition in education (pp. 415–429). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Schraw, G., & Dennison, R. (1994). Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19, 460–475. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1994.1033
Schraw, G., & Moshman, D. (1995). Metacognitive theories. Educational Psychology Review, 7(4), 351–371. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02212307
Schraw, G., Olafson, L., Weibel, M., & Sewing, D. (2012). Metacognitive knowledge and field-based science learning in an outdoor environmental education program. In A. Zohar & Y. Dori (Eds.), Metacognition in science education: Trends in current research, contemporary trends and issues in science education (pp. 57–77). Springer.
Schraw, G., Kuch, F., & Gutierrez, A. (2013). Measure for measure: Calibrating ten commonly used calibration scores. Learning and Instruction, 24, 48–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.08.007
Schraw, G., Kuch, F., Gutierrez, A., & Richmond, A. (2014). Exploring a three-level model of calibration accuracy. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(4), 1192–1202. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036653
Schraw, G., & Gutierrez, A. P. (2015). Metacognitive strategy instruction that highlights the role of monitoring and control processes. In A. Peña-Ayala (Ed.), Metacognition: Fundaments, applications, and trends. A prolife of the current state -of-the-art (pp. 3–15). Springer.
Schwartz, B., & Metcalfe, J. (1994). Methodological problems and pitfalls in the study of human metacognition. In Schwartz & Metcalfe (Eds). Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. 93–114). The MIT Press.
Serra, M. J., & Metcalfe, J. (2009). Effective implementation of metacognition. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. C. Graesser (Eds.), Handbook of metacognition in education (pp. 278–298). Erlbaum.
Son, L. K., & Metcalfe, J. (2000). Metacognitive and control strategies in study-time allocation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26(1), 204–221. https://doi.org/10.1037//0278-7393
Song, C., Kanai, R., Fleming, S. M., Weil, R. S., Schwarzkopf, D. S., & Rees, G. (2011). Relating inter-individual differences in metacognitive performance on different perceptual tasks. Consciousness and Cognition, 20(4), 1787–1792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2010.12.011
Soto, C., Rodríguez Poblete, M., & Gutierrez de Blume, A. (2018). Exploring the meta-comprehension abilities of students with intellectual disabilities. International Journal of Special Education, 33(2), 233–247. http://www.internationalsped.com/documents/IJSE-ENTIRE-ISSUE-33-2.pdf. Accessed 12 May 2022.
Soto, C., Gutiérrez de Blume, A., Jacovina, M., McNamara, D., Benson, N., Riffo, B., & Kruk, R. (2019). Reading comprehension and metacognition: The importance of inferential skills. Cogent Education, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1565067
Sperling, R., Howard, B. C., Miller, L. A., & Murphy, C. (2002). Measures of children’s knowledge and regulation of cognition. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27(1), 51–79. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.2001.1091
Sperling, R., Howard, B., Staley, R., & DuBois, N. (2004). Metacognition and self-regulated learning constructs. Educational Research and Evaluation: An International Journal on Theory and Practice, 10(2), 117–139. https://doi.org/10.1076/edre.10.2.117.27905
Stankov, L. (2000). Complexity, metacognition, and fluid intelligence. Intelligence, 28, 121–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(99)00033-1
Stankov, L., & Crawford, J. D. (1996). Confidence judgments in studies of individual differences. Personality and Individual Differences, 21, 971–986. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(96)00130-4
Stankov, L., & Lee, J. (2008). Confidence and cognitive test performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 961–976. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012546
Sukarelawan, M., Sulisworo, D., Jumadi, J., Kuswanto, H., & AnisaturRofiqah, S. (2021). Heat and temperature metacognition awareness inventory: A confirmatory factor analysis. International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE), 10(2), 389–395. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijere.v10i2.20917
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Cleaning up your act: Screening data prior to analysis. Using multivariate statistics (7th edn, pp. 60–116). Pearson.
Teo, T., & Lee, C. B. (2012). Assessing the factorial validity of the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) in an Asian country: A confirmatory factor analysis. The International Journal of Educational and Psychological Assessment, 10(2), 92–103. https://researchdirect.westernsydney.edu.au/islandora/object/uws:13188/. Accessed 12 May 2022.
Thiede, K., & Dunlosky, J. (1999). Toward a general model of self-regulated study: An analysis of selection of items. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 25(4), 1024–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.25.4.1024
Thiede, K. W., Redford, J. S., Wiley, J., & Griffin, T. D. (2012). Elementary school experience with comprehension testing may influence metacomprehension accuracy among seventh and eighth graders. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(3), 554–564. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028660
Thomas, G. P. (2006). An investigation of the metacognitive orientation of Confucian-Heritage Culture and Non-Confucian-Heritage Culture science classroom learning environments in Hong Kong. Research in Science Education, 36, 85–109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-005-3915-x
Trujillo, C. L., Álvarez, C. P., Zamudio, M. N., & Morales, G. (2015). Facilitating vocabulary learning through metacognitive strategy training and learning journals. Colombian Applied Linguistics Journal, 17(2), 246–259. https://doi.org/10.14483/udistrital.jour.calj.2015.2.a05
van der Plas, E., Zhang, S., Dong, K., Bang, D., Li, J., Wright, N. D., & Fleming, S. M. (2022). Identifying cultural differences in metacognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 151(12), 3268–3280. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001209
Veenman, M. V. J. (2005). The assessment of metacognitive skills: What can be learned from multi- method designs? In C. Artelt & B. Moschner (Eds.), Lernstrategien und Metakognition: Implikationen fur Forschung und Praxis (pp. 75–97). Waxmann.
Veenman, M. V. J., & van Cleef, D. (2019). Measuring metacognitive skills for mathematics: Students’ self-reports versus on-line assessment methods. ZDM, 51, 691–701. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-018-1006-5
Veenman, M., Elshout, J. J., & Meijer, J. (1997). The generality vs domain-specificity of metacognitive skills in novice learning across domains. Learning and Instruction, 7(2), 187–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4752(96)00025-4
Veenman, M. V. J., Prins, F. J., & Verheij, J. (2003). Learning styles: Self-reports versus thinking-aloud measures. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 73(3), 357–372. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709903322275885
Veenman, M., van Hout-Wolters, H. A. M. B., & Afflerbach, P. (2006). Metacognition and learning: conceptual and methodological considerations. Metacognition Learning, 1, 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-006-6893-0
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674576292. Accessed 12 May 2022.
Weaver, C. (1990). Constraining factors in calibration of comprehension. Journal of Studyal Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 214–222. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.16.2.214
Wei, H. H., Jamunarani Vadivelu, E., Gnanamalar Sarojini, D., & Joong Hiong, S. (2015). Thinking about thinking: Changes in first-year medical students’ metacognition and its relation to performance. Medical Education Online, 20(1), 27561. https://doi.org/10.3402/meo.v20.27561
Winne, P., & Azevedo, R. (2014). Metacognition. In K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (pp. 63–87). Cambridge University Press.
Winne, P. H., & Nesbit, J. C. (2009). Supporting self-regulated learning with cognitive tools. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. C. Graesser (Eds.), Handbook of metacognition in education (pp. 259–277). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Zhao, L., & Mo, S. (2016). The impact of metacognitive awareness on class performance in financial accoutning courses. Academy of Educational Leadership Journal,20(2), 78–88. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1072651.pdf. Accessed 12 May 2022.
Yokoyama, O., Miura, N., Watanabe, J., Takemoto, A., Uchida, S., Horie, K., Sato, S., Kawashima, R., Nakamura, K. (2010). Right frontopolar cortex activity correlates with reliability of retrospective rating of confidence in short-term recognition memory performance. Neuroscience Research 68(3), 199–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neures.2010.07.2041
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest/Competing interests
None of the authors have any conflicts of interest to report.
Additional information
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Gutierrez de Blume, A.P., Montoya Londoño, D.M., Daset, L. et al. Normative data and standardization of an international protocol for the evaluation of metacognition in Spanish-speaking university students: A cross-cultural analysis. Metacognition Learning 18, 495–526 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-023-09338-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-023-09338-x