Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Generalizing screen inferiority - does the medium, screen versus paper, affect performance even with brief tasks?

Metacognition and Learning Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Cite this article

Abstract

Screen inferiority in performance and metacognitive processes has been repeatedly found with text learning. Common explanations for screen inferiority relate to technological and physiological disadvantages associated with extensive reading on screen. However, recent studies point to lesser recruitment of mental effort on screen than on paper. Learning tasks involving a heavy reading burden confound technological and physiological media differences with potential media effects on recruitment of mental effort. The present study focused on media effects on effort recruitment. We examined whether screen inferiority remains even with a brief task that nevertheless requires effort recruitment. In two experiments, participants faced three short math problems that require systematic processing to solve correctly. We examined media effect on solving these problems, and the potential of disturbed perceptual fluency (i.e., disfluent versus fluent fonts) to induce effort investment. Overall, there were no performance differences between the media. However, when collecting confidence ratings, disfluency improved performance on screen and hindered it on paper. Only on paper confidence ratings were sensitive to performance differences associated with fluency, and resolution was better with the disfluent font than with the fluent font. Correspondingly, another sample reported on their preference of media for solving the problems. They expressed a clear reluctance to working on screen despite the task being brief. This preference is suggestive of reliable meta-metacognitive judgments reflecting the general lower quality of metacognitive processes on screen. The findings call for considering medium and presentation format effects on metacognitive processing when designing computerized environments, even for brief tasks.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Notes

  1. The original planned sample size was of about 100 participants. After running this sample and finding no effects (see Results section), we doubled the sample in order to verify that these results did not stem from effects that were weaker than expected.

  2. In the Israeli version of the SAT, known as the Psychometric Entrance Test, scores range from 200 to 800, normally distributed (M = 533, SD = 101, in 2013).

  3. All analyses were also separately conducted for each of the CRT problems, with similar results (no main effects or interactive effect).

  4. A separate analysis per each of the CRT problems revealed that the interactive effects found for success rates were mainly due to widgets and lily pads problems, and the interactive effect found for confidence was mainly due to the widget problem.

References

  • Ackerman, R. (2014). The diminishing criterion model for metacognitive regulation of time investment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(3), 1349–1368.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ackerman, R., & Goldsmith, M. (2008). Control over grain size in memory reporting –with and without satisficing knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34(5), 1224–1245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ackerman, R., & Goldsmith, M. (2011). Metacognitive regulation of text learning: on screen versus on paper. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 17(1), 18–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ackerman, R., & Lauterman, T. (2012). Taking reading comprehension exams on screen or on paper? A metacognitive analysis of learning texts under time pressure. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(5), 1816–1828.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ackerman, R., & Zalmanov, H. (2012). The persistence of the fluency–confidence association in problem solving. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 19(6), 1189–1192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alter, A. L., Oppenheimer, D. M., Epley, N., & Eyre, R. N. (2007). Overcoming intuition: metacognitive difficulty activates analytic reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136(4), 569–576.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Annand, D. (2008). Learning efficacy and cost-effectiveness of print versus e-book instructional material in an introductory financial accounting course. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 7(2), 152–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Antón, C., Camarero, C., & Rodríguez, J. (2013). Usefulness, enjoyment, and self-image congruence: the adoption of e-book readers. Psychology & Marketing, 30(4), 372–384.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ball, R., & Hourcade, J. P. (2011). Rethinking reading for age from paper and computers. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 27(11), 1066–1082.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benedetto, S., Drai-Zerbib, V., Pedrotti, M., Tissier, G., & Baccino, T. (2013). E-readers and visual fatigue. PLoS One, 8(12), 1–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benjamin, A. S., Bjork, R. A., & Schwartz, B. L. (1998). The mismeasure of memory: when retrieval fluency is misleading as a metamnemonic index. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 55–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Yehudah, G., & Eshet-Alkalai, Y. (2014). The influence of text annotation tools on print and digital reading comprehension. In Y. Eshet, A. Caspi, N. Geri, Y. Kalman, V. Silber-Varod, & Y. Yair (Eds.), Proceedings of the 9th Chais Conference for Innovation in Learning Technologies (pp. 28–35). Raanana, Israel: Open University Press.

  • Bjork, R. A. (1994). Memory and metamemory considerations in the training of human beings. In J. Metcalfe & A. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. 185–205). Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bjork, R. A. (1999). Assessing our own competence: Heuristics and illusions. In D. Gopher & A. Koriat (Eds.), Attention and performance XVII: Cognitive regulation of performance: Interaction of theory and application (pp. 435–459). Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiong, C., Ree, J., Takeuchi, L., & Erickson, I. (2012). Comparing parent–child co-reading on print, basic, and enhanced e-book platforms. The Joan Ganz Cooney Center. http://www.joanganzcooneycenter.org/publication/quickreport-print-books-vs-e-books/

  • Cokely, E. T., & Kelley, C. M. (2009). Cognitive abilities and superior decision making under risk: a protocol analysis and process model evaluation. Judgment and Decision Making, 4(1), 20–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daniel, D. B., & Woody, W. D. (2013). E-textbooks at what cost? Performance and use of electronic v. print texts. Computers & Education, 62, 18–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeStefano, D., & LeFevre, J. (2007). Cognitive load in hypertext reading: a review. Computers in Human Behavior, 23, 1616–1641.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diemand-Yauman, C., Oppenheimer, D. M., & Vaughan, E. B. (2011). Fortune favors the bold (and the italicized): effects of disfluency on educational outcomes. Cognition, 118(1), 111–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunlosky, J., & Thiede, K. W. (1998). What makes people study more? An evaluation of factors that affect self-paced study. Acta Psychologica, 98(1), 37–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunlosky, J., & Thiede, K. W. (2013). Four cornerstones of calibration research: why understanding students’ judgments can improve their achievement. Learning and Instruction, 24, 58–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eden, S., & Eshet-Alkalai, Y. (2013). The effect of format on performance: editing text in print versus digital formats. British Journal of Educational Technology, 44(5), 846–856.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, J. S. B. T., & Stanovich, K. E. (2013). Dual-process theories of higher cognition: advancing the debate. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(3), 223–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frederick, S. (2005). Cognitive reflection and decision making. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19, 25–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greene, J. A., & Azevedo, R. (2007). A theoretical review of Winne and Hadwin’s model of self-regulated learning: new perspectives and directions. Review of Educational Research, 77(3), 334–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gu, X., Wu, B., & Xu, X. (2015). Design, development, and learning in e-textbooks: what we learned and where we are going. Journal of Computers in Education, 2(1), 25–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hillesund, T. (2010). Digital reading spaces: How expert readers handle books, the Web and electronic paper. First Monday (Online). Retrieved from http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/2762/2504

  • Hirshman, E., & Mulligan, N. (1991). Perceptual interference improves explicit memory but does not enhance data-driven processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 17(3), 507–513.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holzinger, A., Baernthaler, M., Pammer, W., Katz, H., Bjelic-Radisic, V., & Ziefle, M. (2011). Investigating paper vs. screen in real-life hospital workflows: performance contradicts perceived superiority of paper in the user experience. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 69(9), 563–570.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, A. (1991). Effects of training in strategic questioning on children’s problem-solving performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(3), 307–317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koriat, A., & Ackerman, R. (2010). Metacognition and mindreading: judgments of learning for self and other during self-paced study. Consciousness and Cognition, 19(1), 251–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koriat, A., Ma’ayan, H., & Nussinson, R. (2006). The intricate relationships between monitoring and control in metacognition: lessons for the cause-and-effect relation between subjective experience and behavior. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 135(1), 36–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kühl, T., & Eitel, A. (this issue). Effects of Disfluency on Cognitive and Metacognitive Processes and Outcomes. Metacognition and Learning.

  • Lauterman, T., & Ackerman, R. (2014). Overcoming screen inferiority in learning and calibration. Computers in Human Behavior, 35, 455–463.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leeson, H. V. (2006). The mode effect: a literature review of human and technological issues in computerized testing. International Journal of Testing, 6(1), 1–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, L. Y., Chen, G. D., & Yang, S. J. (2013). Construction of cognitive maps to improve e-book reading and navigation. Computers & Education, 60(1), 32–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, F., Xie, R., Li, X., & Li, W. (2015). The influence of perceptual information on control processes involved in self-regulated learning: evidence from item selection. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22(4), 1007–1013.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, Z. (2005). Reading behavior in the digital environment. Journal of Documentation, 61(6), 700–712.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mangen, A., Walgermo, B. R., & Brønnick, K. (2013). Reading linear texts on paper versus computer screen: effects on reading comprehension. International Journal of Educational Research, 58, 61–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Margolin, S. J., Driscoll, C., Toland, M. J., & Kegler, J. L. (2013). E-readers, computer screens, or paper: does reading comprehension change across media platforms? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 27, 512–519.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masson, M. E., & Rotello, C. M. (2009). Sources of bias in the Goodman–Kruskal gamma coefficient measure of association: implications for studies of metacognitive processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35(2), 509–527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, R. E., Heiser, J., & Lonn, S. (2001). Cognitive constraints on multimedia learning: when presenting more material results in less understanding. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(1), 187–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, A., Frederick, S., Burnham, T., Guevara Pinto, J. D., Boyer, T. W., Ball, L. J., Pennycook, G., Ackerman, R., Thompson, V., & Schuldt, J. P. (2015). Disfluent fonts don’t help people solve math problems. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(2), e16–e30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mizrachi, D. (2015). Undergraduates’ academic reading format preferences and behaviors. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 41(3), 301–311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morineau, T., Blanche, C., Tobin, L., & Guéguen, N. (2005). The emergence of the contextual role of the e-book in cognitive processes through an ecological and functional analysis. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 62(3), 329–348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, M. C., & Pérez, J. (2011). E-textbooks are coming: are we ready? Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology, 8, 49–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, T. O. (1984). A comparison of current measures of the accuracy of feeling-of-knowing predictions. Psychological Bulletin, 95(1), 109–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norman, E., & Furnes, B. (2016). The relationship between metacognitive experiences and learning: is there a difference between digital and non-digital study media? Computers in Human Behavior, 54, 301–309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oeberst, A., Haberstroh, S., & Gnambs, T. (2015). Not really the same: computerized and real lotteries in decision making research. Computers in Human Behavior, 44, 250–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oppenheimer, D. M. (2006). Consequences of erudite vernacular utilized irrespective of necessity: problems with using long words needlessly. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20(2), 139–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poole, A., & Ball, L. J. (2006). Eye tracking in HCI and usability research. Encyclopedia of Human Computer Interaction, 1, 211–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prowse Turner, J. A., & Thompson, V. A. (2009). The role of training, alternative models, and logical necessity in determining confidence in syllogistic reasoning. Thinking & Reasoning, 15(1), 69–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salmerón, L., & García, V. (2012). Children’s reading of printed text and hypertext with navigation overviews: the role of comprehension, sustained attention, and visuo-spatial abilities. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 47(1), 33–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shynkaruk, J. M., & Thompson, V. A. (2006). Confidence and accuracy in deductive reasoning. Memory & Cognition, 34(3), 619–632.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soderstrom, N. C., Clark, C. T., Halamish, V., & Bjork, E. L. (2015). Judgments of learning as memory modifiers. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 41(2), 553–558.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Song, H., & Schwarz, N. (2008). If it’s hard to read, it’s hard to do: processing fluency affects effort prediction and motivation. Psychological Science, 19(10), 986–988.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sungkhasettee, V. W., Friedman, M. C., & Castel, A. D. (2011). Memory and metamemory for inverted words: illusions of competency and desirable difficulties. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18(5), 973–978.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tauber, S. K., & Rhodes, M. G. (2012). Measuring memory monitoring with judgements of retention (JORs). The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65, 1376–1396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thiede, K. W., Anderson, M., & Therriault, D. (2003). Accuracy of metacognitive monitoring affects learning of texts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(1), 66–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, V. A. (2009). Dual process theories: A metacognitive perspective. In J. Evans & K. Frankish (Eds.), In two minds: Dual processes and beyond (pp. 171–195). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, V. A., Turner, J. A. P., Pennycook, G., Ball, L. J., Brack, H., Ophir, Y., & Ackerman, R. (2013). The role of answer fluency and perceptual fluency as metacognitive cues for initiating analytic thinking. Cognition, 128(2), 237–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winne, P. H. (2004). Students’ calibration of knowledge and learning processes: implications for designing powerful software learning environments. International Journal of Educational Research, 41(6), 466–488.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woody, W. D., Daniel, D. B., & Baker, C. A. (2010). E-books or textbooks: students prefer textbooks. Computers & Education, 55(3), 945–948.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yue, C. L., Castel, A. D., & Bjork, R. A. (2013). When disfluency is—and is not—a desirable difficulty: the influence of typeface clarity on metacognitive judgments and memory. Memory & Cognition, 41(2), 229–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The study was supported by grants from the Israel Science Foundation (Grant No. 957/13).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Industrial Engineering and Management, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Technion City, Haifa, 3200003, Israel

    Yael Sidi, Yael Ophir & Rakefet Ackerman

Authors
  1. Yael Sidi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Yael Ophir
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Rakefet Ackerman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yael Sidi.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Sidi, Y., Ophir, Y. & Ackerman, R. Generalizing screen inferiority - does the medium, screen versus paper, affect performance even with brief tasks?. Metacognition Learning 11, 15–33 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-015-9150-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-015-9150-6

Keywords

search

Navigation