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The development of two observational tools for assessing metacognition and self-regulated learning in young children

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Abstract

This paper reports on observational approaches developed within a UK study to the identification and assessment of metacognition and self-regulation in young children in the 3–5 year age range. It is argued that the development of observational tools, although containing methodological difficulties, allows us to make more valid assessments of children’s metacognitive and self-regulatory abilities in this age group. The analysis of 582 metacognitive or self-regulatory videotaped ‘events’ is described, including the development of a coding framework identifying verbal and non-verbal indicators. The construction of an observational instrument, the Children’s Independent Learning Development (CHILD 3–5) checklist, is also reported together with evidence of the reliability with which it can be used by classroom teachers and early indications of its external validity as a measure of metacognition and self-regulation in young children. Given the educational significance of children’s development of metacognitive and self-regulatory skills, it is argued that the development of such an instrument is potentially highly beneficial. The establishment of the metacognitive and self-regulatory capabilities of young children by means of the kinds of observational tools developed within this study also has clear and significant implications for models and theories of metacognition and self-regulation. The paper concludes with a discussion of these implications.

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Notes

  1. The term ‘independent learning’ is widely used in UK professional and policy documents, and so was adopted for this study, which was funded by Cambridgeshire Local Education Authority. Within the project this term was treated as synonymous with self-regulated learning.

  2. The UK Foundation Stage is the first stage of state education, covering the age groups of 3-5 years.

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Correspondence to David Whitebread.

Appendices

Appendix 1

C.Ind.Le Coding Scheme: Verbal and Nonverbal Indicators of Metacognition and Self-Regulation in 3- to 5-Year-Olds

Category name

Description of behavior

Examples

Metacognitive knowledge

Knowledge of persons

A verbalization demonstrating the explicit expression of one’s knowledge in relation to cognition or people as cognitive processors. It might include knowledge about cognition in relation to:

Refers to his/her own strengths or difficulties in learning and academic working skills

I can write my name

- Self: Refers to own capabilities, strengths and weaknesses, or academic/task preferences; comparative judgments about own abilities

Refers to others’ strengths or difficulties in learning and academic working skills

I can count backwards

- Others: Refers to others’ processes of thinking or feeling toward cognitive tasks

Talks about general ideas about learning

I dont know how to sing the song

- Universals: Refers to universals of people’s cognition

  

Knowledge of tasks

A verbalization demonstrating the explicit expression of one’s own long-term memory knowledge in relation to elements of the task.

Compares across tasks identifying similarities and differences

They need to put their boots on. And when they put their boots on, they dig a hole

 

Makes a judgment about the level of difficulty of cognitive tasks or rates the tasks on the basis of pre-established criteria or previous knowledge

 

Knowledge of strategies

A verbalization demonstrating the explicit expression of one’s own knowledge in relation to strategies used or performing a cognitive task, where a strategy is a cognitive or behavioral activity that is employed so as to enhance performance or achieve a goal.

Defines, explains or teaches others how she/he has done or learned something

We don’t need to use the sticky tape, we can use the glue

 

Explains procedures involved in a particular task

You have to point it up this end so that it is going to grow

 

Evaluates the effectiveness of one or more strategies in relation to the context or the cognitive task.

 

Metacognitive regulation

Planning

Any verbalization or behaviour related to the selection of procedures necessary for performing the task, individually or with others

Sets or clarifies task demands and expectations

Im going to make a big circle

 

Sets goals and targets

I know… me and Harry could be the knights and you could be the peasant

 

Allocates individual roles and negotiates responsibilities

Child compares two objects before deciding which to use on task

 

Decides on ways of proceeding with the task

 
 

Seeks and collects necessary resources

 

Monitoring

Any verbalization or behaviour related to the ongoing on-task assessment of the quality of task performance (of self or others) and the degree to which performance is progressing towards a desired goal

Self- commentates

I think weve got one left

 

Reviews progress on task (keeping track of procedures currently being undertaken and those that have been done so far)

This bit doesnt fit anywhere

 

Rates effort on-task or rates actual performance

Hang on, weve got it a bit wrong here

 

Rates or makes comments on currently memory retrieval

Child stops mid-way through an action (placing puzzle piece), pauses and re-directs action to place it somewhere else

 

Checks behaviors or performance, including detection of errors

 
 

Self-corrects

 
 

Checks and/or corrects performance of peer

 

Control

Any verbalization or behaviour related to a change in the way a task had been conducted (by self or others), as a result of cognitive monitoring

Changes strategies as a result of previous monitoring

Lets have a practice

 

Suggests and uses strategies in order to solve the task more effectively

Can you help me do it?

 

Applies a previously learnt strategy to a new situation

Child points to spots on a die as he counts

 

Repeats a strategy in order to check the accuracy of the outcome

Child looks at a physical model (example: word on whiteboard) repeatedly while completing a task

 

Seeks help

Child points at computer screen or interactive whiteboard to indicate where another child should click the mouse

 

Uses nonverbal gesture as a strategy to support own cognitive activity

 
 

Copies from or imitates a model

 
 

Helps or guides another child using gesture

 

Evaluation

Reviews own learning or explains the task

Hes done really well

Any verbalization or behaviour related to reviewing task performance and evaluating the quality of performance (by self or others).

Evaluates the strategies used

We learnt how to cut, and how to stick things together

 

Rates the quality of performance

Child rotates scissors in hands while opening and closing them before initiating cutting activity

 

Observes or comments on task progress

 
 

Tests the outcome or effectiveness of a strategy in achieving a goal

 

Emotional and motivational regulation

Emotional/motivational monitoring

Any verbalization or behaviour related to the assessment of current emotional and motivational experiences regarding the task

 

 
 

Express awareness of positive or negative emotional experience of a task

That wasn’t very nice

 

Monitors own emotional reactions while being on a task

It’s a bit sad

  

I don’t want to be a peasant

Emotional/ motivational control

 

 

Any verbalization or behaviour related to the regulation of one’s emotional and motivational experiences while on task

Controls attention and resists distraction or returns to task after momentary distraction

Mine is going to be a lovely one

 

Self-encourages or encourages others

Child looks towards activity of others in the classroom, then re-focuses on task at hand and resumes activity

 

Persists in the face of difficulty or remains in task without help

 

Appendix 2

Checklist of Independent Learning Development (CHILD) 3–5

Name of child: ___________________ Teacher: ______________________

Date: _______________ School/setting: ___________________________

 

 

Always

Usually

Sometimes

Never

Comment

Emotional

     

Can speak about own and others behaviour and consequences

     

Tackles new tasks confidently

     

Can control attention and resist distraction

     

Monitors progress and seeks help appropriately

     

Persists in the face of difficulties

     

ProSocial

     

Negotiates when and how to carry out tasks

     

Can resolve social problems with peers

     

Shares and takes turns independently

     

Engages in independent cooperative activities with peers

     

Is aware of feelings of others and helps and comforts

     

Cognitive

     

Is aware of own strengths and weaknesses

     

Can speak about how they have done something or what they have learnt

     

Can speak about future planned activities

     

Can make reasoned choices and decisions

     

Asks questions and suggests answers

     

Uses previously taught strategies

     

Adopts previously heard language for own purposes

     

Motivational

     

Finds own resources without adult help

     

Develops own ways of carrying out tasks

     

Initiates activities

     

Plans own tasks, targets and goals

     

Enjoys solving problems

     

Other comments:

Appendix 3

Vignettes of event coding

A. Filling The Digger

Individual activity: No adult

Ellie is sitting in a small, carpeted area of the classroom. The area is resourced with a number of toy vehicles and some open boxes of play materials including ‘small world’ materials and wooden blocks. As the observation starts, Ellie is holding a large toy vehicle. It is an excavator, or digger, with a bucket mechanism in front of the driver’s cab.

The following table presents an account of Ellie’s activity and its analysis.

 

Observed Activity

Analysis

Ellie reaches to the box of wooden blocks and selects two small cubes. She places the blocks in the digger’s bucket.

As a choice of play materials is available, the reaching to the box of blocks suggests a purposeful choice linked to a planned activity.

 

Planning: seeking and collecting necessary resources

As a third block is added, the digger tips forwards, spilling all the blocks from the bucket. Ellie rights the vehicle and starts to refill the bucket.

 

After putting three small cubes into the bucket, the digger starts to tip again. Ellie steadies the toy with a hand, but one block spills from the bucket.

The action of steadying the digger whilst adding blocks is a new strategy suggestive of a response to the previous spillage.

 

Control: Changing from one strategy to another on task

Ellie picks up the spilled cube and places it between the bucket and the cab of the digger.

The selection of a new position for the blocks is a departure from the previous strategy of placing them in the bucket.

 

Control: Changing from one strategy to another on task

As more blocks are added, the digger tips forwards again. Ellie pauses and looks at the digger.

This pause combined with eye gaze in the direction of the toy indicates observation of the task element or consideration of task progress.

 

Reflection/Evaluation: careful observation of progress of task performance or component

After righting the toy, Ellie places two blocks between the bucket and cab.

 

With one hand remaining on the digger, Ellie pauses and looks around the classroom apparently watching the activities of other children, before returning attention to the digger

Although there is a passing interest in the surrounding activity, the return to engagement with the task is indicative of a motivational self-regulation.

 

Regulation of motivation: returns to task after distraction

She rolls the digger forwards on the carpet, watching the digger as she does so.

The focus of gaze during this activity suggests elements of evaluation of the loading strategy.

 

Reflection/evaluation: Testing the outcome of a strategy in achieving a goal

B. Finding a place for the card Event P30

Collaborative small group. No adult. Problem solving

A group of six girls are playing a lotto game. Each child has a game board divided into six squares each with a different image. Individual picture cards in a central pack are taken in turn, and children match these to the images on their boards.

 

Observed activity

Analysis

Hannah: leaning towards Nalini and looking at the card she is holding.

Although the phrasing of this statement suggests that some unknown strategy is being drawn upon to support the assertion, the confident analysis of the interaction is that one child is helping another to complete a task.

You should have that one.

Control and regulation: Helps or guides another child

Nalini holds her card by one corner and moves it around her board, she looks repeatedly and alternately at the card and board.

The movement of the card around the board indicates an extended process of checking. This inference is supported by the pattern of eye gaze.

 

Monitoring: Checks performance

A\s she finds a match she places the card in position on the board, looks up to Hannah and smiles.

The non-verbal communication of the smile indicates an awareness of a pleasure in the successful completion of the matching task.

 

Emotional/motivational monitoring: Expresses awareness of positive emotional experience

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Whitebread, D., Coltman, P., Pasternak, D.P. et al. The development of two observational tools for assessing metacognition and self-regulated learning in young children. Metacognition Learning 4, 63–85 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-008-9033-1

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