Abstract
Purpose
Gully erosion is the most serious form of soil degradation that occurs in agricultural areas. Gully head retreat is an essential process in gully erosion. In some respects, gully head activity reflects gully head retreat. This paper aims to present a method for quantifying gully head activity, understanding the effects of its influencing factors and analyzing the relationship between gully head activity and gully growth rates.
Materials and methods
Based on a field survey of 80 gully heads in five small watersheds, hilly-gully region of the Loess Plateau, this study introduced a gully head activity index (GAI) and calculated it with a semiquantitative method, which employs seven indicators. Theoretically, the GAI ranges from 1 to 3, and the larger the GAI is, the more active the gully head is. Pearson correlation coefficients (r) were used to evaluate the individual relationships between the GAI and upslope drainage area, upslope length, vegetation coverage, and slope aspects. One-way ANOVA was used to compare the GAI in different vegetation types, soil and water conservation measures (SWCM). Finally, Pearson’s correlation was used to evaluate the relationships between gully growth and the GAI.
Results
The GAIs of 80 gully heads ranged from 1.122 to 2.943, with an average value of 1.765. Positive correlations with the GAI were found for both upslope drainage area and upslope length. There was a significant negative correlation between vegetation coverage and the GAI. No significant relationship was found between slope aspects and the GAI. In the drainage area, the average GAI values were 1.801, 1.895, and 1.457 for grassland, shrub-grass land, and tree-grass land, respectively. The average GAI values were 1.507 and 1.498 for terraces and fish-scale pits, respectively, compared with a GAI value of 1.826 when no soil and water conservation measures were taken. The average annual gully growth rate (Ag) between 2007 and 2016 was significantly correlated with the GAI.
Conclusion
The GAIs of 80 gully heads reveal the relatively lower activity of the gully heads. Vegetation types and SWCM have positive effects in terms of reducing gully head activity. SWCM combined with proper tree species can effectively reduce gully head activity. Gully erosion processes are complex, and gully head activity can only explain part of the variation in gully growth.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Arnáez J, Lana-Renault N, Lasanta T, Ruiz-Flaño P, Castroviejo J (2015) Effects of farming terraces on hydrological and geomorphological processes. Rev Catena 128:122–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2015.01.021
Bastida F, Moreno JL, Hernández T, García C (2006) Microbiological degradation index of soils in a semiarid climate. Soil Biol Biochem 38:3463–3473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2006.06.001
Blong RJ, Graham OP, Veness JA (1982) The role of sidewall processes in gully development; some N.S.W. examples. Earth Surf Process Landf 7(4):381–385. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290070409
Burkard MB, Kostaschuk RA (1997) Patterns and controls of gully growth along the shoreline of Lake Huron. Earth Surf Process Landf 22(10):901–911. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9837(199710)22:10%3c901::AID-ESP743%3e3.0.CO;2-O
Cao JY, Tang GA, Fang X, Liu YJ, Zhu Y, Li JL, Wagner W (2020) Identification of active gully erosion sites in the Loess Plateau of China using MF-DFA. Remote Sens 12(3):589. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12030589
Castillo C, Gómez JA (2016) A century of gully erosion research: urgency, complexity and study approaches. Earth-Sci Rev 160:300–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.07.009
Chen H, Zhang XP, Abla M, Lü D, Yan R, Ren QF, Ren ZY, Yang YH, Zhao WH, Lin PF, Liu BY, Yang XH (2018) Effects of vegetation and rainfall types on surface runoff and soil erosion on steep slopes on the Loess Plateau, China. CATENA 170:141–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2018.06.006
Chen YP, Wang KB, Lin YS, Shi WY, Song Y, He XH (2015) Balancing green and grain trade. Nat Geosci 8(10):739–741. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2544
Chen YX, Jiao JY, Wei YH, Zhao HK (2017) Characteristics of gully development in northern Shaanxi hilly loess region before Grain-for-Green Programme (1976–1997). Trans Chin Soc Agric Eng 33(17):120–127. https://doi.org/10.11975/j.issn.1002-6819.2017.17.016 (in Chinese with English abstract)
De Baets S, Poesen J, Reubens B, Wemans K, De Baerdemaeker J, Muys B (2008) Root tensile strength and root distribution of typical Mediterranean plant species and their contribution to soil shear strength. Plant Soil 305(1–2):207–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-008-9553-0
de Vente J, Poesen J (2005) Predicting soil erosion and sediment yield at the basin scale: Scale issues and semi-quantitative models. Earth-Sci Rev 71(1–2):95–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.02.002
de Vente J, Poesen J, Bazzoffi P, Van Rompaey A, Verstraeten G (2006) Predicting catchment sediment yield in Mediterranean environments: the importance of sediment sources and connectivity in Italian drainage basins. Earth Surf Process Landf 31(8):1017–1034. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1305
de Vente J, Poesen J, Verstraeten G, Govers G, Vanmaercke M, Van Rompaey A, Arabkhedri M, Boix-Fayos C (2013) Predicting soil erosion and sediment yield at regional scales: where do we stand?. Earth-Sci Rev 127(2):16–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.08.014
Frankl A, Poesen J, Deckers J, Haile M, Nyssen J (2012) Gully head retreat rates in the semi-arid highlands of Northern Ethiopia. Geomorphology 173–174:185–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.06.011
Frankl A, Poesen J, Haile M, Deckers J, Nyssen J (2013) Quantifying long-term changes in gully networks and volumes in dryland environments: the case of Northern Ethiopia. Geomorphology 201:254–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.06.025
Fu SH, Liu BY, Zhang GH, Lu BJ, Ye ZH (2010) Fish-scale pits reduce runoff and sediment. Trans ASABE 53(1):157–162. https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.29508
Gong JG, Jia YW, Zhou ZH, Wang Y, Wang WL, Peng H (2011) An experimental study on dynamic processes of ephemeral gully erosion in loess landscapes. Geomorphology 125(1):203–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.09.016
Gou QP, Zhu QK (2021) Response of deep soil moisture to different vegetation types in the Loess Plateau of northern Shaanxi. China Sci Rep 11:15098. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-94758-5
Grellier S, Kemp J, Janeau JL, Florsch N, Ward D, Barot S, Podwojewski P, Lorentz S, Valentin C (2012) The indirect impact of encroaching trees on gully extension: a 64 year study in a sub-humid grassland of South Africa. CATENA 98:110–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2012.07.002
Guo MM, Wang WL, Wang TC, Wang WX, Kang HL (2020) Impacts of different vegetation restoration options on gully head soil resistance and soil erosion in loess tablelands. Earth Surf Process Landf 45:1038–1050. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4798
Halim R, Clemente RS, Routray JK, Shrestha RP (2007) Integration of biophysical and socio-economic factors to assess soil erosion hazard in the Upper Kaligarang Watershed. Indonesia Land Degrad Dev 18(4):453–469. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.774
Imwangana FM, Dewitte O, Ntombi M, Moeyersons J (2014) Topographic and road control of mega-gullies in Kinshasa (DR Congo). Geomorphology 217(2):131–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.04.021
Kirkby MJ, Bracken LJ (2009) Gully processes and gully dynamics. Earth Surf Process Landf 34:1841–1851. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1866
Le Bouteiller C, Venditti JG (2015) Sediment transport and shear stress partitioning in a vegetated flow. Water Resour Res 51:2901–2922. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014wr015825
Li Y, Poesen J, Yang JC, Fu B, Zhang JH (2003) Evaluating gully erosion using 137Cs and 210Pb/137Cs ratio in a reservoir catchment. Soil Tillage Res 69(1–2):107–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0167-1987(02)00132-0
Li Z, Zhang Y, Zhu QK, He YM, Yao WJ (2015) Assessment of bank gully development and vegetation coverage on the Chinese Loess Plateau. Geomorphology 228:462–469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.10.005
Li Z, Zhang Y, Zhu QK, Yang S, Li HJ, Ma H (2017) A gully erosion assessment model for the Chinese Loess Plateau based on changes in gully length and area. CATENA 148:195–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.04.018
Liu JG, Li SX, Ouyang ZY, Tam C, Chen XD (2008) Ecological and socioeconomic effects of China’s policies for ecosystem services. Proc Natl Acad Sci 105(28):9477–9482. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0706436105
Mao Z, Saint-André L, Genet M, Mine FX, Jourdan C, Rey H, Courbaud B, Stokes A (2012) Engineering ecological protection against landslides in diverse mountain forests: choosing cohesion models. Ecol Eng 45:55–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2011.03.026
Martı́nez-Casasnovas JA, Sánchez-Bosch I, (2000) Impact assessment of changes in land use/conservation practices on soil erosion in the Penedès-Anoia vineyard region (NE Spain). Soil Tillage Res 57(1–2):101–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-1987(00)00142-2
Marzolff I, Ries JB, Poesen J (2011) Short-term versus medium-term monitoring for detecting gully-erosion variability in a Mediterranean environment. Earth Surf Process Landf 36(12):1604–1623. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.2172
Oostwoud Wijdenes D, Poesen J, Vandekerckhove L, Ghesquiere M (2000) Spatial distribution of gully head activity and sediment supply along an ephemeral channel in a Mediterranean environment. CATENA 39(3):147–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0341-8162(99)00092-2
Pan CZ, Ma L, Wainwright J (2016) Particle selectivity of sediment deposited over grass barriers and the effect of rainfall. Water Resour Res 52:7963–7979. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016wr019010
Peng SL, Chen AQ, Fang HD, Wu JL, Liu GC (2013) Effects of vegetation restoration types on soil quality in Yuanmou dry-hot valley. China Soil Sci Plant Nutr 59(3):347–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380768.2013.785918
Poesen J, Nachtergaele J, Verstraeten G, Valentin C (2003) Gully erosion and environmental change: importance and research needs. CATENA 50(2–4):91–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0341-8162(02)00143-1
Rossi M, Torri D, Santi E (2015) Bias in topographic thresholds for gully heads. Nat Hazards 79(S1):51–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-015-1701-2
Rieke-Zapp DH, Nichols MH (2011) Headcut retreat in a semiarid watershed in the southwestern United States since 1935. CATENA 87(1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2011.04.002
Saha S, Gayen A, Pourghasemi HR, Tiefenbacher JP (2019) Identification of soil erosion-susceptible areas using fuzzy logic and analytical hierarchy process modeling in an agricultural watershed of Burdwan district. India Environ Earth Sci 78(23):649. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8658-5
Sauer T, Ries JB (2008) Vegetation cover and geomorphodynamics on abandoned fields in the Central Ebro Basin (Spain). Geomorphology 102(2):267–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.05.006
Seginer I (1966) Gully development and sediment yield. J Hydrol 4:236–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(66)90082-5
Sidorchuk A (1999) Dynamic and static models of gully erosion. CATENA 37(3–4):401–414. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0341-8162(99)00029-6
Sidorchuk A, Maerker M, Moretti S, Rodolfi G (2003) Gully erosion modelling and landscape response in the Mbuluzi River catchment of Swaziland. CATENA 50(2–4):507–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0341-8162(02)00123-6
Stolte J, Liu B, Ritsema CJ, van den Elsen HGM, Hessel R (2003) Modelling water flow and sediment processes in a small gully system on the Loess Plateau in China. CATENA 54(1–2):117–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0341-8162(03)00060-2
Svoray T, Michailov E, Cohen A, Rokah L, Sturm A (2012) Predicting gully initiation: comparing data mining techniques, analytical hierarchy processes and the topographic threshold. Earth Surf Process Landf 37(6):607–619. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.2273
Tang KL (2004) Soil and Water Conservation in China (in Chinese). Science Press, Beijing
Tarolli P, Sofia G (2016) Human topographic signatures and derived geomorphic processes across landscapes. Geomorphology 255(4):140–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2015.12.007
Thompson JR (1964) Quantitative effect of watershed variables on rate of gully-head advancement. Trans Am Soc Agric Eng 7(1):54–55. https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.40694
Torri D, Poesen J (2014) A review of topographic threshold conditions for gully head development in different environments. Earth-Sci Rev 130:73–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.12.006
Valentin C, Poesen J, Li Y (2005) Gully erosion: Impacts, factors and control. CATENA 63(2–3):132–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2005.06.001
Vandekerckhove L, Poesen J, Govers G (2003) Medium-term gully headcut retreat rates in Southeast Spain determined from aerial photographs and ground measurements. CATENA 50(2–4):329–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0341-8162(02)00132-7
Vanmaercke M, Poesen J, Van Mele B, Demuzere M, Bruynseels A, Golosov V, Bezerra JFR, Bolysov S, Dvinskih A, Frankl A, Fuseina Y, Guerra AJT, Haregeweyn N, Ionita I, Makanzu Imwangana F, Moeyersons J, Moshe I, Nazari Samani A, Niacsu L, Nyssen J, Otsuki Y, Radoane M, Rysin I, Ryzhov YV, Yermolaev O (2016) How fast do gully headcuts retreat?. Earth-Sci Rev 154:336–355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.01.009
Wei J, Zhou J, Tian JL, He XB, Tang KL (2006) Decoupling soil erosion and human activities on the Chinese Loess Plateau in the 20th century. CATENA 68(1):10–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2006.04.011
Wei W, Chen LD, Fu BJ, Huang ZL, Wu DP, Gui LD (2007) The effect of land uses and rainfall regimes on runoff and soil erosion in the semi-arid loess hilly area. China J Hydrol 335(3–4):247–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.11.016
Wei W, Jia FY, Yang L, Chen LD, Zhang HD, Yu Y (2014) Effects of surficial condition and rainfall intensity on runoff in a loess hilly area. China J Hydrol 513(1):115–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.03.022
Wells RR, Momm HG, Rigby JR, Bennett SJ, Bingner RL, Dabney SM (2013) An empirical investigation of gully widening rates in upland concentrated flows. CATENA 101(2):114–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2012.10.004
Wu YQ, Cheng H (2005) Monitoring of gully erosion on the Loess Plateau of China using a global positioning system. CATENA 63(2–3):154–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2005.06.002
Xia L, Song XY, Fu N, Cui SY, Li LJ, Li HY, Li YL (2019) Effects of forest litter cover on hydrological response of hillslopes in the Loess Plateau of China. CATENA 181:104076. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2019.104076
Xu XZ, Liu ZY, Xiao PQ, Guo WZ, Zhang HW, Zhao C, Yan Q (2015) Gravity erosion on the steep loess slope: behavior, trigger and sensitivity. CATENA 135:231–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2015.08.005
Xu XZ, Zhu TX, Zhang HW, Gao L (2020) Gravity Erosions on the Loess Gully Bank: Avalanche, Landslide, or Mudslide. In: Experimental Erosion. Springer, Singapore, pp 141–149 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3801-8_9
Yu Y, Wei W, Chen LD, Feng TJ, Daryanto S, Wang LX (2017) Land preparation and vegetation type jointly determine soil conditions after long-term land stabilization measures in a typical hilly catchment, Loess Plateau of China. J Soils Sediments 17(1):144–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-016-1494-2
Yu Y, Wei W, Chen LD, Feng TJ, Daryanto S (2019) Quantifying the effects of precipitation, vegetation, and land preparation techniques on runoff and soil erosion in a Loess watershed of China. Sci Total Environ 652:755–764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.255
Yuan MT, Zhang Y, Zhao YY, Deng JY (2020) Effect of rainfall gradient and vegetation restoration on gully initiation under a large-scale extreme rainfall event on the hilly Loess Plateau: a case study from the Wuding River basin. China Sci Total Environ 739:140066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140066
Zegeye AD, Langendoen EJ, Stoof CR, Tilahun SA, Dagnew DC, Zimale FA, Guzman CD, Yitaferu B, Steenhuis TS (2016) Morphological dynamics of gully systems in the subhumid Ethiopian Highlands: The Debre Mawi watershed. Soil 2(3):443–458. https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-2-443-2016
Zhang J, Wang CM, Liu L, Guo H, Liu GD, Li YW, Deng SH (2014) Investigation of carbon dioxide emission in china by primary component analysis. Sci Total Environ 472:239–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.11.062
Zhang Y, Yang S, Li Z, Li HJ, He YM (2015) Effect of narrow terrace on gully erosion in Northern Shaanxi Loess area. Trans CSAE 31(7):125–130. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-6819.2015.07.018 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Zhang BQ, He CS, Burnham M, Zhang LH (2016) Evaluating the coupling effects of climate aridity and vegetation restoration on soil erosion over the Loess Plateau in China. Sci Total Environ 539:436–449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.132
Zhang YG, Wang P, Cheng JH, Wang WJ, Zeng L, Wang B (2020) Drag coefficient of emergent flexible vegetation in steady nonuniform flow. Water Resour Res 56:e2020WR027613. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020wr027613
Zhu TX (2012) Gully and tunnel erosion in the hilly Loess Plateau region, China. Geomorphology 153–154:144–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.02.019
Zhu Y, Zhang Y, Zhu QK, Lu L (2011) Spatial distribution patterns of vegetation on natural grassland in loess plateau interfluve. Chin J Ecol 30(6):1063–1069. https://doi.org/10.13292/j.1000-4890.2011.0236 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Funding
This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (42177309) and the State Key Program of National Natural Science of China (42130701).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Jiaxi Wang: methodology, software, validation, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, writing–original draft, writing–review and editing, visualization. Conghui Fan: investigation, data curation, formal analysis, writing–original draft. Yan Zhang: conceptualization, resources, data curation, writing–original draft, writing–review and editing, supervision, project administration, funding acquisition. Zhen Li: investigation.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible editor: Pariente Sarah
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, J., Fan, C., Zhang, Y. et al. Gully head activity and its influencing factors in China’s Loess Plateau. J Soils Sediments 22, 1792–1803 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-022-03182-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-022-03182-3