Skip to main content
Springer Nature Link
Log in

Mercury methylation in the soils and sediments of Three Gorges Reservoir Region

  • Sediments, Sec 2 • Physical and Biogeochemical Processes • Research Article
  • Published:
Journal of Soils and Sediments Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

Previous studies demonstrated that microorganisms had an important role in the mercury (Hg) methylation process in the water and sediments of Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR). The purpose of this research was to analyze the microbial methylation of Hg in the soils and sediments of the water-level-fluctuating zone (WLFZ) of TGR.

Materials and methods

Different types of soils, sediment (≤ 155 m), semi-inundated soil (≥ 155 m), and non-inundated soil (≥ 175 m) of the WLFZ of Shibao (S), Zhenxi (Z), and Tujing (T) were investigated. Real-time PCR, terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP), cloning, sequencing, and phylogenetic analysis were used to analyze the abundance and diversity of dsrB, hgcA, and mcrA genes, and their relationship with the levels of total Hg (THg), MeHg, and several biogeochemical factors that probably affected microbial methylation reaction.

Results and discussion

THg concentrations in different soil types of the WLFZ of TGR did not show significant differences (p > 0.05) in site S, while there were significant differences (p < 0.05) of MeHg levels in different soil types of the three sites. Phylogenetic analyses found that the dominant groups of microorganisms with dsrB in the sediment and non-inundated soil in site S differed remarkably. Microorganisms that probably related with Hg methylation mainly distributed in the sediment, with δ-proteobacteria as the dominant class. Real-time PCR found that soil MeHg levels correlated positively with the resident quantities of microorganisms with dsrB. The abundance of dsrB was much higher than that of hgcA which may indicate that only a small part of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) related with Hg methylation.

Conclusions

Soil MeHg levels correlated positively with the resident quantities of microorganisms with the dsrB gene. The phylogenetic analysis indicated that SRB that probably related with Hg methylation distributed mainly in the sediment, rather than in the non-inundated soil.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+
from $39.99 /Month
  • Starting from 10 chapters or articles per month
  • Access and download chapters and articles from more than 300k books and 2,500 journals
  • Cancel anytime
View plans

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles, books and news in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.

References

  • Abelson PH (1970) Methyl mercury. Science 169:237–237

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Acha D, Hintelmann H, Yee J (2011) Importance of sulfate reducing bacteria in mercury methylation and demethylation in periphyton from Bolivian Amazon region. Chemosphere 82:911–916

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Acha D, Iniguez V, Roulet M, Guimaraes J, Luna R, Alanoca L, Sanchez S (2005) Sulfate-reducing bacteria in floating macrophyte rhizospheres from an Amazonian floodplain lake in Bolivia and their association with Hg methylation. Appl Environ Microbiol 71:7531–7535

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bae HS, Dierberg FE, Ogram A (2014) Syntrophs dominate sequences associated with the mercury methylation-related gene hgcA in the water conservation areas of the Florida Everglades. Appl Environ Microbiol 80:6517–6526

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barkay T, Gillman M, Turner RR (1997) Effects of dissolved organic carbon and salinity on bioavailability of mercury. Appl Environ Microbiol 63:4267–4271

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benoit JM, Gilmour CC, Mason RP, Riedel GS, Riedel GF (1998) Behavior of mercury in the Patuxent River estuary. Biogeochemistry 40:249–265

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benoit JM, Gilmour CC, Mason RP, Heyes A (1999) Sulfide controls on mercury speciation and bioavailability to methylating bacteria in sediment pore waters. Environ Sci Technol 33:951–957

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benoit JM, Gilmour CC, Mason RP (2001) The influence of sulfide on solid-phase mercury bioavailability for methylation by pure cultures of Desulfobulbus propionicus (1pr3). Environ Sci Technol 35:127–132

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boening DW (2000) Ecological effects, transport, and fate of mercury: a general review. Chemosphere 40:1335–1351

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bridou R, Monperrus M, Gonzalez PR, Guyoneaud R, Amouroux D (2011) Simultaneous determination of mercury methylation and demethylation capacities of various sulfate-reducing bacteria using species-specific isotopic tracers. Environ Toxicol Chem 30:337–344

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brigham ME, Krabbenhoft DP, Olson ML, Dewild JF (2002) Methylmercury in flood-control impoundments and natural waters of northwestern Minnesota, 1997–99. Water Air Soil Pollut 138:61–78

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drott A, Lambertsson L, Bjorn E, Skyllberg U (2007) Importance of dissolved neutral mercury sulfides for methyl mercury production in contaminated sediments. Environ Sci Technol 41:2270–2276

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Du H, Ma M, Sun T, Dai X, Yang C, Luo F, Wang D, Igarashi Y (2016) Mercury-methylating genes dsrB and hgcA in soils/sediments of the Three Gorges Reservoir. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:5001–5011

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duran R, Ranchou-Peyruse M, Menuet V, Monperrus M, Bareille G, Goni MS, Salvado JC, Amouroux D, Guyoneaud R, Donard OFX (2008) Mercury methylation by a microbial community from sediments of the Adour estuary (Bay of Biscay, France). Environ Pollut 156:951–958

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dyrssen D, Wedborg M (1991) The sulphur-mercury(II) system in natural waters. Water Air Soil Pollut 56:507–519

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eckley CS, Luxton TP, Mckernan JL, Goetz J, Goulet J (2015) Influence of reservoir water level fluctuations on sediment methylmercury concentrations downstream of the historical Black Butte Mercury Mine, OR. Appl Geochem 61:284–293

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Feng X, Wang S, Qiu G, Hou Y, Tang S (2005) Total gaseous mercury emissions from soil in Guiyang, Guizhou, China. J Geophys Res 110:1891–1904

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feng X, Jiang H, Qiu G, Yan H, Li G, Li Z (2009a) Mercury mass balance study in Wujiangdu and Dongfeng reservoirs, Guizhou, China. Environ Pollut 157:2594–2603

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Feng X, Jiang H, Qiu G, Yan H, Li G, Li Z (2009b) Geochemical processes of mercury in Wujiangdu and Dongfeng reservoirs, Guizhou, China. Environ Pollut 157:2970–2984

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fleming EJ, Mack EE, Green PG, Nelson DC (2006) Mercury methylation from unexpected sources: molybdate-inhibited freshwater sediments and an iron-reducing bacterium. Appl Environ Microbiol 72:457–464

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Foti M, Sorokin DY, Lomans B, Mussman M, Zacharova EE, Pimenov NV, Kuenen JG, Muyzer G (2007) Diversity, activity, and abundance of sulfate-reducing bacteria in saline and hypersaline soda lakes. App Environ Microbiol 73:2093–2100

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Geets J, Borremans B, Diels L, Springael D, Vangronsveld J, Lelie DVD, Vanbroekhoven K (2006) DsrB gene-based DGGE for community and diversity surveys of sulfate-reducing bacteria. J Microbiol Meth 66:194–205

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gilmour CC, Henry EA, Mitchell R (1992) Sulfate stimulation of mercury methylation in freshwater sediments. Environ Sci Technol 26:2281–2287

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gilmour CC, Elias DA, Kucken AM, Brown SD, Palumbo AV, Schadt CW, Wall JD (2011) Sulfate-reducing bacterium Desulfovibrio desulfuricans ND132 as a model for understanding bacterial mercury methylation. Appl Environ Microbiol 77:3938–3951

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gilmour CC, Podar M, Bullock AL, Graham AM, Brown SD, Somenahally AC, Johs A, Jr HR, Bailey KL, Elias DA (2013) Mercury methylation by novel microorganisms from new environments. Environ Sci Technol 47:11810–11820

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hales BA, Edwards C, Ritchie DA, Hall G, Pickup RW, Saunders JR (1996) Isolation and identification of methanogen-specific DNA from blanket bog peat by PCR amplification and sequence analysis. Appl Environ Microbiol 62:668–675

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • He T, Feng X, Guo Y, Qiu G, Li Z, Liang L, Lu J (2008) The impact of eutrophication on the biogeochemical cycling of mercury species in a reservoir: a case study from Hongfeng Reservoir, Guizhou, China. Environ Pollut 154:56–67

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Henry EA (1992) The role of sulfate-reducing bacteria in environmental mercury methylation. University, Harvard

    Google Scholar 

  • Hsu-Kim H, Kucharzyk KH, Zhang T, Deshusses MA (2013) Mechanisms regulating mercury bioavailability for methylating microorganisms in the aquatic environment: a critical review. Environ Sci Technol 47:2441–2456

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hu H, Feng XB, Zeng YP, Qiu GL (2011) Progress in research on microbial methylation of mercury. Chin J Ecol 30:874–882 (in Chinese)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hu H, Lin H, Zheng W, Tomanicek SJ, Johs A, Feng X, Elias DA, Liang L, Gu B (2013) Oxidation and methylation of dissolved elemental mercury by anaerobic bacteria. Nat Geosci 6:751–754

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jay JA, Morel FMM, Hemond HF (2000) Mercury speciation in the presence of polysulfides. Environ Sci Technol 34:2196–2200

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jay JA, Murray KJ, Gilmour CC, Mason RP, Morel FMM, Roberts AL, Hemond HF (2002) Mercury methylation by desulfovibrio desulfuricans ND132 in the presence of polysulfides. Appl Environ Microbiol 68:5741–5745

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jiang H (2005) Effects of hydroelectric reservoir on the biogeochemical cycle of mercury in the Wujiang River, Chinese Academy of Sciences (in Chinese)

  • Kamman NC, Burgess NM, Driscoll CT, Simonin HA, Goodale W, Linehan J, Estabrook R, Hutcheson M, Major A, Scheuhammer AM (2005) Mercury in freshwater fish of northeast North America—a geographic perspective based on fish tissue monitoring databases. Ecotoxicology 14:163–180

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li J, Zhou Q, Yuan G, He X, Xie P (2015) Mercury bioaccumulation in the food web of Three Gorges Reservoir (China): tempo-spatial patterns and effect of reservoir management. Sci Total Environ 527-528:203–210

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liang L, Horvat M, Feng X, Shang L, Li H, Pang P (2004) Re-evaluation of distillation and comparison with HNO3 leaching/solvent extraction for isolation of methylmercury compounds from sediment/soil samples. Appl Organomet Chem 18:264–270

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lin CC, Yee N, Barkay T (2012) Microbial transformations in the mercury cycle. In: Liu G, Cai Y, O’Driscoll N (Eds) Environmental chemistry and toxicology of mercury. Wiley, New York, pp 156-157.

  • Liu YR, Yu RQ, Zheng YM, He JZ (2014a) Analysis of the microbial community structure by monitoring an Hg methylation gene (hgcA) in paddy soils along an Hg gradient. Appl Environ Microbiol 80:2874–2879

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu YR, Zheng YM, Zhang LM, He JZ (2014b) Linkage between community diversity of sulfate-reducing microorganisms and methylmercury concentration in paddy soil. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 21:1339–1348

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lu R (2000) Agricultural chemical analytical methods of soil. Chinese Agricultural (In Chinese)

  • Mason RP, Reinfelder JR, Morel FMM (1996) Uptake, toxicity, and trophic transfer of mercury in a coastal diatom. Environ Sci Technol 30:1835–1845

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Montgomery S, Lucotte M, Rheault I (2000) Temporal and spatial influences of flooding on dissolved mercury in boreal reservoirs. Sci Total Environ 260:147–157

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morel FMM, Kraepiel AML, Amyot M (2003) The chemical cycle and bioaccumulation of mercury. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 29:543–566

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nurnberg G (1984) Iron and hydrogen sulfide interference in the analysis of soluble reactive phosphorus in anoxic waters. Water Res 18:369–377

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parks JM, Johs A, Podar M, Bridou R, Jr HR, Smith SD, Tomanicek SJ, Qian Y, Brown SD, Brandt CC (2013) The genetic basis for bacterial mercury methylation. Science 339:1332–1335

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Qiu G, Feng X, Wang S, Xiao T (2006) Mercury contaminations from historic mining to water, soil and vegetation in Lanmuchang, Guizhou, Southwestern China. Sci Total Environ 368:56–68

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ranchou-Peyruse M, Monperrus M, Bridou R, Duran R, Amouroux D, Salvado JC, Guyoneaud R (2009) Overview of mercury methylation capacities among anaerobic bacteria including representatives of the sulphate-reducers: implications for environmental studies. Geomicrobiology 26:1–8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raposo JC, Ozamiz G, Etxebarria N, Tueros I, Muñoz C, Muela A, Arana I, Barcina I (2008) Mercury biomethylation assessment in the estuary of Bilbao (North of Spain). Environ Pollut 156:482–488

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sando SK, Krabbenhoft DP, Johnson KM, Lundgren RF, Emerson DG (2007) Mercury and Methylmercury in water and bottom sediments of wetlands at Lostwood National Wildlife Refuge, North Dakota, 2003–04. USGS - U.S. Geological Survey

  • Schaefer JK, Rocks SS, Zheng W, Liang L, Gu B, Morel FM (2011) Active transport, substrate specificity, and methylation of Hg(II) in anaerobic bacteria. P Natl Acad Sci USA 108:8714–8719

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schaefer JK, Kronberg RM, Morel FMM, Skyllberg U (2014) Detection of a key Hg methylation gene, hgcA, in wetland soils. Environ Microbiol Rep 6:441–447

  • Xiang Y, Du H, Shen H, Zhang C, Wang D (2014) Dynamics of total culturable bacteria and its relationship with methylmercury in the soils of the water level fluctuation zone of the Three Gorges Reservoir. Chin Sci Bull 59:2966–2972

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yu R (2011) Microbial mercury methylation and demethylation: biogeochemical mechanisms and metagenomic perspectives in freshwater ecosystems, the State University of New Jersey, New Jersey

    Google Scholar 

  • Yu RQ, Reinfelder JR, Hines ME, Barkay T (2013) Mercury methylation by the methanogen Methanospirillum hungatei. Appl Environ Microbiol 79:6325–6330

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao Z, Wang D, Wang Y, Mu Z, Zhu J (2014) Wet deposition flux and runoff output flux of mercury in a typical small agricultural watershed in Three Gorges Reservoir areas. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22:5538–5551

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Basic Research Program of China (973 Program, No. 2013CB430004), National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 41573105 and 41603098), Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Environmental Exposure and Health (No. GZKLEEHXX), and Projects of Scientific Platform and Base Construction (key laboratory) (No. cstc2014pt-sy0017).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Resources and Environment, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China

    Ming Ma, Hongxia Du, Dingyong Wang & Tao Sun

  2. School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China

    Ming Ma

  3. Research Center of Bioenergy and Bioremediation, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China

    Hongxia Du

Authors
  1. Ming Ma
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Hongxia Du
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Dingyong Wang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Tao Sun
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Dingyong Wang.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Nives Ogrinc

Electronic supplementary material

ESM 1

(DOCX 491 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ma, M., Du, H., Wang, D. et al. Mercury methylation in the soils and sediments of Three Gorges Reservoir Region. J Soils Sediments 18, 1100–1109 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-017-1827-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-017-1827-9

Keywords