Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Mercury in soil profiles from metal mining and smelting areas in Namibia and Zambia: distribution and potential sources

  • SOILS, SEC 4 • ECOTOXICOLOGY • RESEARCH ARTICLE
  • Published:
Journal of Soils and Sediments Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

Whereas mercury (Hg) has been extensively studied in gold mining areas (including artisanal mining), it is often overlooked as a minor contaminant in these districts, within which industrial base-metal mining and smelting are in operation. The aims of this study were to investigate Hg in tropical soils from mining and smelting areas in Namibia and Zambia and to apply statistical methods to generate models for the prediction of Hg concentrations in the soils studied.

Materials and methods

Twenty-one soil profiles (n = 159 soil samples) were collected in metal mining districts in the northern parts of Namibia (Tsumeb, Berg Aukas, Kombat) and in the Zambian Copperbelt (Kitwe, Mufulira). Total Hg was analysed by atomic absorption spectrometry and compared statistically with other physico-chemical and chemical soil parameters. Mercury concentrations in potential sources (feed and wastes from smelters as well as mine tailings, n = 35) were also determined.

Results and discussion

Mercury concentrations in soils from mining/smelting areas were significantly higher in northern Namibia (range 0.0038–4.39, mean 0.39, median 0.02 mg kg−1) than in the Zambian Copperbelt (range 0.0055–0.39, mean 0.02, median 0.01 mg kg−1). This phenomenon is related to the higher levels of Hg in the mine tailing materials as well as the feed/wastes from the smelters in Namibia (specifically in Berg Aukas and Tsumeb). Only 27 % (Namibia) and 26 % (Zambia) of the soil samples exceeded geochemical anomaly thresholds (0.033 and 0.016 mg kg−1, respectively), generally indicating a low Hg pollution level. The highest Hg concentrations were observed in the uppermost soil layers. Total Hg correlated significantly with other contaminants and, in the Zambian dataset, also with Corg and Stot.

Conclusions

Based on measurements of total Hg in soils from the mining/smelting areas in Namibia and Zambia, only one fourth of the samples exceeded geochemical anomaly thresholds, and they indicated a relatively low level of Hg pollution. Elevated Hg concentrations were only observed in topsoils in the immediate vicinities of mine tailings and active smelters. Constructed regression models were found to be useful for prediction of Hg concentrations at both of the regions studied.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Almås AR, Manoko MLK (2012) Trace element concentrations in soil, sediments and waters in the vicinity of Gheita gold mines and North Mara gold mines in northwest Tanzania. Soil Sediment Contam 21:135–159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Briggs C, Gustin MS (2013) Building upon the conceptual model for soil mercury flux: evidence of a link between moisture evaporation and Hg evasion. Water Air Soil Pollut 224:1744

  • Chen M, Ma LQ, Harris WG (1999) Baseline concentrations of 15 trace elements in Florida surface soils. J Environ Qual 28:1173–1181

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dai Z, Feng X, Zhang C, Wang J, Jiang T, Xiao H, Li Y, Wang X, Qiu G (2013) Assessing anthropogenic sources of mercury in soil in Wanshan Hg mining area, Guizhou, China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 20:7560–7569

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dudka S, Ponce-Hernandez R, Hutchinson TC (1995) Current level of total element concentrations in the surface layer of Sudbury’s soils. Sci Total Environ 162:161–171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ettler V, Rohovec J, Navrátil T, Mihaljevič M (2007) Mercury distribution in soil profiles polluted by lead smelting. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 78:12–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ettler V, Mihaljevič M, Kříbek B, Majer V, Šebek O (2011) Tracing the spatial distribution and mobility of metal/metalloid contaminants in Oxisols in the vicinity of the Nkana copper smelter, Copperbelt province, Zambia. Geoderma 164:73–84

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ettler V, Konečný L, Kovářová L, Mihaljevič M, Šebek O, Kříbek B, Majer V, Veselovský F, Penížek V, Vaněk A, Nyambe I (2014) Surprisingly contrasting metal distribution and fractionation patterns in copper smelter-affected tropical soils in forested and grassland areas (Mufulira, Zambian Copperbelt). Sci Total Environ 473–474:117–124

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fiorentino JC, Enzweiler J, Angélica RS (2011) Geochemistry of mercury along a soil profile compared to other elements and to the parental rock: evidence of external input. Water Air Soil Pollut 221:63–75

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gray JE, Pribil MJ, Higueras PL (2013) Mercury isotope fractionation during ore retorting in the Alamdén mining district, Spain. Chem Geol 357:150–157

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grimaldi C, Grimaldi M, Guedron S (2008) Mercury distribution in tropical soil profiles related to origin of mercury and soil processes. Sci Total Environ 401:121–129

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guedron S, Grangeon S, Lanson B, Grimaldi M (2009) Mercury speciation in a tropical soil association: consequence of gold mining on Hg distribution in French Guiana. Geoderma 153:331–346

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gustin MS, Lindberg SE, Austin K, Coolbaugh M, Vette A, Zhang H (2000) Assessing the contribution of natural sources to regional atmospheric mercury budget. Sci Total Environ 259:61–71

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • IUSS Working Group WRB (2006) World reference base for soil resources 2006. World soil resources reports no. 103. FAO, Rome

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson TA, Telmer KH, Muir DCG (2013) Mass-dependent and mass-independent variations in the isotope composition of mercury in cores from lake polluted by a smelter: effects of smelter emissions, natural processes, and their interactions. Chem Geol 352:27–46

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kamona AF, Günzel A (2007) Stratigraphy and base metal mineralization in the Otavi Mountain Land, Northern Namibia—a review and regional interpretation. Gondwana Res 11:396–413

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kříbek B, Majer V, Veselovský F, Nyambe I (2010) Discrimination of lithogenic and anthropogenic sources of metals and sulphur in soils of the central-northern part of the Zambian Copperbelt Mining District: a topsoil vs. subsurface soil concept. J Geochem Explor 104:69–89

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li Z, Feng X, Li G, Bi X, Sun G, Zhu J, Qin H, Wang J (2011) Mercury and other metal and metalloid soil contamination near a Pb/Zn smelter in east Hunan province, China. Appl Geochem 26:160–166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lusilao-Makiese J, Tessier E, Amoroux D, Tutu H, Chimuka L, Cukrowska EM (2012) Speciation of mercury in South African coals. Toxicol Environ Chem 94:1688–1706

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lusilao-Makiese JG, Cukrowska EM, Tessier E, Amouroux D, Weiersbye I (2013) The impact of post gold mining on mercury pollution in the West Rand region, Gauteng, South Africa. J Geochem Explor 134:111–119

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mapani B, Ellmies R, Kamona F, Kříbek B, Majer V, Knésl I, Pašava J, Mufenda M, Mbingeneeko F (2010) Potential human health risks associated with historic ore processing at Berg Aukas, Gootfontein area, Namibia. J Afr Earth Sci 58:634–647

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Navrátil T, Hojdová M, Rohovec J, Penížek V, Vařilová Z (2009) Effect of fire on pools of mercury in forest soils, central Europe. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 83:269–274

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Navrátil T, Shanley J, Rohovec J, Hojdová M, Penížek V, Buchtová J (2014) Distribution and pools of mercury in Czech forest soils. Water Air Soil Pollut 225:1829

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nriagu JO (1996) A history of global metal pollution. Science 272:223–224

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ottesen RT, Birke M, Finne TE, Gosar M, Locutura J, Reimann C, Tarvainen T, The GEMAS Project Team (2013) Mercury in European agricultural and grazing land soils. Appl Geochem 33:1–12

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pacyna EG, Pacyna JM, Steenhusien F, Wilson S (2006) Global anthropogenic mercury emission inventory for 2000. Atmos Environ 40:4048–4063

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pansu M, Gautheyrou J (2006) Handbook of soil analysis: mineralogical, organic and inorganic methods. Springer, Berlin

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Peña-Rodríguez S, Pontevedra-Pombal X, Fernández-Calviño D, Taboada T, Arias-Estévez M, Martínez-Cortizas A, Nóvoa-Muñoz JC, García-Rodeja E (2012) Mercury content in volcanic soils across Europe and its relationship with soil properties. J Soils Sediments 12:542–555

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pirrone N, Cinnirella S, Feng X, Finkelman RB, Friedli HR, Leaner J, Mason R, Mukherjee AB, Stracher GB, Streets DG, Telmer K (2010) Global mercury emissions to the atmosphere from anthropogenic and natural sources. Atmos Chem Phys 10:5951–5964

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rice KM, Walker EM Jr, Wu M, Gillette C, Blough ER (2014) Environmental mercury and its toxic effects. J Prev Med Public Health 47:74–83

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson JB, Friedland AJ, Engerbretson TR, Kaste JM, Jackson BP (2013) Spatial and vertical distribution of mercury in upland forest soils across the northeastern United States. Environ Pollut 182:127–134

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rieuwerts JS, Farago M (1996) Mercury concentrations in a historic lead mining and smelting town in the Czech Republic: a pilot study. Sci Total Environ 188:167–171

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Santos-Francés F, García-Sánchez A, Alonso-Rojo P, Contreras F, Adams M (2011) Distribution and mobility of mercury in soils of a gold mining region, Cuyuni river basin, Venezuela. J Environ Manage 92:1268–1276

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Selin NE (2009) Global biogeochemical cycling of mercury: a review. Annu Rev Environ Resour 34:43–63

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Şenilă M, Levei EA, Şenilă LR, Oprea GM, Roman CM (2012) Mercury in soil and perennial plants in a mining-affected urban area from northwestern Romania. J Environ Sci Health A 47:614–621

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sun R, Heimbürger LE, Sonke JE, Liu G, Amoroux D, Berail S (2013) Mercury stable isotope fractionation in six utility boilers of two large coal-fired power plants. Chem Geol 336:103–111

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tack FMG, Vanhaesebroeck T, Verloo MG, Van Rompaey K, Van Ranst E (2005) Mercury baseline levels in Flemish soils (Belgium). Environ Pollut 134:173–179

  • Taylor H, Appleton JD, Lister R, Smith B, Chitamweba D, Mkumbo O, Machiwa JF, Tesha AL, Beinhoff C (2005) Environmental assessment of mercury contamination from the Rwamagasa artisanal gold mining centre, Geita District, Tanzania. Sci Total Environ 343:111–133

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van Straaten P (2000) Mercury contamination associated with small-scale gold mining in Tanzania and Zimbabwe. Sci Total Environ 259:105–113

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang SX, Song JX, Li GH, Wu Y, Zhang L, Wan Q, Streets DG, Chin CK, Hao JM (2010) Estimating mercury emissions from a zinc smelter in relation to China's mercury control policies. Environ Pollut 158:3347–3353

  • Yin X, Yao C, Song J, Li Z, Zhang C, Qian W, Bi D, Li C, Teng Y, Wu L, Wan H, Luo Y (2009) Mercury contamination in vicinity of secondary copper smelters in Fuyand, Zhejiang Province, China: levels and contamination in topsoils. Environ Pollut 157:1787–1793

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by the Czech Science Foundation (GAČR 210/12/1413, 13-17501S) and was carried out within the framework of IGCP Project No. 594 (“Assessment of impact of mining and mineral processing on the environment and human health in Africa”). The authors would like to thank Hans Nolte and Pierre Reinecke of Dundee Precious Metals Tsumeb (DPMT), Tony Gonzáles of the Mufulira smelter, and the staff of the Chambishi smelter for providing the samples from their smelting operations. Dr. Peter Lemkin is thanked for his review of the English. The comments of two anonymous reviewers helped to improve the original version of the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Geochemistry, Mineralogy and Mineral Resources, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Albertov 6, 128 43, Prague 2, Czech Republic

    Filip Podolský, Vojtěch Ettler & Martin Mihaljevič

  2. Laboratories of the Geological Institutes, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Albertov 6, 128 43, Prague 2, Czech Republic

    Ondřej Šebek

  3. Institute of Applications of Mathematics and Information Technologies, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Albertov 6, 128 43, Prague 2, Czech Republic

    Josef Ježek

  4. Czech Geological Survey, Geologická 6, 152 00, Prague 5, Czech Republic

    Bohdan Kříbek & Vladimír Majer

  5. Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University in Olomouc, 17. listopadu 12, 771 46, Olomouc, Czech Republic

    Ondra Sracek

  6. Department of Soil Science and Soil Protection, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 21, Prague 6, Czech Republic

    Aleš Vaněk & Vít Penížek

  7. Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, University of Namibia, Private Bag 13301, Windhoek, Namibia

    Ben Mapani & Fred Kamona

  8. School of Mines, University of Zambia, P. O. Box 32 379, Lusaka, Zambia

    Imasiku Nyambe

Authors
  1. Filip Podolský
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Vojtěch Ettler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ondřej Šebek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Josef Ježek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Martin Mihaljevič
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Bohdan Kříbek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Ondra Sracek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Aleš Vaněk
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Vít Penížek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Vladimír Majer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. Ben Mapani
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  12. Fred Kamona
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  13. Imasiku Nyambe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Vojtěch Ettler.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Dong-Mei Zhou

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Table S1

(DOCX 23 kb)

Table S2

(DOCX 21 kb)

Table S3

(DOCX 20 kb)

Fig. S1

(DOCX 169 kb)

Fig. S2

(DOCX 121 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Podolský, F., Ettler, V., Šebek, O. et al. Mercury in soil profiles from metal mining and smelting areas in Namibia and Zambia: distribution and potential sources. J Soils Sediments 15, 648–658 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-014-1035-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-014-1035-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation