Skip to main content
Springer Nature Link
Log in

Defining a nutritionally healthy, environmentally friendly, and culturally acceptable Low Lands Diet

  • LCA OF NUTRITION AND FOOD CONSUMPTION
  • Published:
The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to demonstrate that linear programming can support to define nutritionally healthy, environmentally friendly, and culturally acceptable diets, using the Low Lands as an illustrative example.

Methods

Our study quantifies the historical Dutch diet of 75 years ago, based on a cultural history research. We calculate the greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) and land use (LU) of this diet, using actual life cycle assessment (LCA) data for the 206 most consumed products, and the health score, based on ten nutritional characteristics. In order to meet the current requirements, we optimize this diet for adult males using linear programming. We compare the diet with the present Dutch, Mediterranean, and New Nordic Diet.

Results and discussion

An optimized Low Lands Diet has the same healthy nutritional characteristics (Health Score 123) as the Mediterranean Diet (122) and results in a lower environmental impact than the Mediterranean and New Nordic Diet (higher Combined GHGE-LU Score 121 versus 90 and 91). GHGE are 2.60 kg CO2eq per day and LU 2.86 m2 * year per day.

Conclusions

Through applying the method of linear programming, it is possible to calculate an optimal diet for the Low Lands with a short cultural distance, that is, as healthy as and more sustainable than a transition to more foreign European diets.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+
from $39.99 /Month
  • Starting from 10 chapters or articles per month
  • Access and download chapters and articles from more than 300k books and 2,500 journals
  • Cancel anytime
View plans

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles, books and news in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.

Notes

  1. Low Lands refer to the Rhine-Meuse delta, mainly characterized by fertile flat land at North Sea level, a temperate climate, and a sober, tolerant, former Calvinist, Dutch speaking culture. This study focusses on Dutch data.

References

  • Aiking H (2014) Protein production: planet, profit plus people? Am J Clin Nutr 100(suppl):483S–489S

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Albala K (2003) Food in early modern Europe, 1500–1800. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT

    Google Scholar 

  • Auestad N, Fulgoni VL (2015) What current literature tells us about sustainable diets: emerging research linking dietary patterns, environmental sustainability, and economics. Adv Nutr: An International Review Journal 6:19–36

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bach-Faig A et al (2011) Mediterranean diet pyramid today. Science and cultural updates. Public Health Nutr 14:2274–2284

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bajželj B et al (2014) Importance of food-demand management for climate mitigation. Nat Clim Chang 4:924–929

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bere E, Brug J (2009) Towards health-promoting and environmentally friendly regional diets? A Nordic example. Public Health Nutr 12:91–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bere E, Brug J (2010) Is the term ‘Mediterranean diet’ a misnomer? Public Health Nutr 13:2127–2129

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blonk H, Ponsioen T, Kool A, Marinussen M (2011) The Agri-footprint method; Methodological LCA framework, assumptions and applied data, 1st edn. Blonk Milieu Advies, Gouda, Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruinsma J (2009) The resource outlook to 2050, Chapter 6; 233–278. FAO, Rome

    Google Scholar 

  • BSI (2008) PAS 2050:2008 Specification for the assessment of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of goods and services. British Standards, Carbon Trust, Defra, London, United Kingdom

    Google Scholar 

  • BSI (2012). PAS 2050–1: 2012 Assessment of life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from horticultural products. British Standards, London, United Kingdom

  • Buchner B, Fischler C, Fitoussi J-P et al (2010) Double Pyramid: healthy food for people, sustainable food for the planet. Barilla Center for Food & Nutrition, Milan, Italy

  • CBS (2001) Two hundred years of statistics in time series 1800–1999 (In Dutch: Tweehonderd jaar statistiek in tijdreeksen 1800–1999). RuG, CBS. Netherlands, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • CBS (2012) More people overweight. Web magazine, 04 July 2012, accessed 2014-04-16: http://www.cbs.nl/en-GB/menu/themas/gezondheid-welzijn/publicaties/artikelen/archief/2012/2012-3651-wm.htm

  • CBS, PBL, Wageningen UR (2013). Footprint of the Dutch consumption (in Dutch; indicator 0075, versie 06, 14 juni 2013). www.compendiumvoordeleefomgeving.nl. CBS, Den Haag; Planbureau voor de Leefomgeving, Den Haag/Bilthoven en Wageningen UR, Wageningen

  • Dantzig GMT (1997) Linear programming 1: introduction. Springer, New York, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • De Boer J, Helms M, Aiking H (2006) Protein consumption and sustainability: diet diversity in EU-15. Ecol Econ 59:267–274

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee (DGAC) (2015) Scientific Report of the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee (Advisory Report). USDA, Department of Agriculture, Washington, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • Durlinger B, Tyszler M, Scholten J, Broekema R, Blonk H (2014) Agri-Footprint; a Life Cycle Inventory database covering food and feed production and processing. Conference paper LCA in Food, San Francisco

    Google Scholar 

  • Dutilh C, Kramer KJ (2000) Energy consumption in the food chain. Ambio 29:98–101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • EFSA (2015) The EFSA Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database. http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/datexfoodcdb/datexfooddb

  • FAO (2010) Biodiversity and sustainable diets united against hunger. In: International Scientific Symposium, Rome. FAO Headquarters, Rome, Italy

    Google Scholar 

  • Fidanza F, Alberti A (2005) The healthy Italian Mediterranean Diet temple food guide. Nutr Today 40:71–78

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Food SCP (2012) ENVIFOOD protocol environmental assessment of food and drink protocol. Draft Version 0.1:1–50

  • Garnett T (2011) Where are the best opportunities for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the food system (including the food chain)? Food Policy 36. Supplement 1:S23–S32

    Google Scholar 

  • Hahnemann T (2010) Eat your way to health and happiness with the Nordic diet. Quadrille Publishing Limited, London, United Kingdom

    Google Scholar 

  • Health Council (2001) Nutritional standards for energy, protein, fat and carbohydrates (In Dutch: Voedingsnormen energie, eiwitten, vetten en verteerbare koolhydraten). Gezondheidsraad, The Hague, Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  • Health Council (2006) Guidelines for Good Nutrition 2006 (In Dutch: Richtlijnen Goede Voeding 2006). Gezondheidsraad, The Hague, Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  • Health Council (2009) Towards an adequate intake of vitamins and minerals (In Dutch: Naar een voldoende inname van vitamines en mineralen). Gezondheidsraad, The Hague, Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  • Health Council (2011) Guidelines for a healthy diet: the ecological perspective. Gezondheidsraad, The Hague, Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  • Heller MC, Keoleian GA, Willett WC (2013) Toward a life cycle-based, diet-level framework for food environmental impact and nutritional quality assessment: a critical review. Environ Sci Technol 47:12632–12647

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jobse-Van Putten J (1995) Simple but nutritious (in Dutch; Eenvoudig maar voedzaam. Cultuurgeschiedenis van de dagelijkse maaltijd in Nederland), 1st edn. Uitgeverij Sun BV, Nijmegen, Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  • JRC (2010) ILCD handbook: general guide for life cycle assessment—detailed guidance European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability. Ispra, Italy

    Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy ET, Ohls J, Carlson S, Fleming K (1995) The healthy eating index: design and applications. J Am Diet Assoc 95:1103–1108

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keys A (1970) Coronary heart disease in seven countries. Circulation Suppl 41:1–211

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keys A (1980) Seven countries: a multivariate analysis of death and coronary heart disease. Ann Intern Med 93:786–787

    Google Scholar 

  • Knibbe MT (2001) The development of the nutritional situation in The Netherlands 1851–1950 (In Dutch: De ontwikkeling van de voedselsituatie in Nederland, 1851–1950). NEHA yearbook 64:200–226

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreijl C, Knaap A, Busch M, Havelaar A, Kramers P, Kromhout D, Fv L, Hv L-L, Ocke M, Verkley H (2004) Our food measured (In Dutch: Ons eten gemeten). RIVM, Bilthoven, Netherlands, p 365

    Google Scholar 

  • Lampert M (2014) Mentality Milieus, from http://www.motivaction.nl/mentality

  • Laurent A, Olsen SI, Hauschild MZ (2010) Carbon footprint as environmental performance indicator for the manufacturing industry. CIRP Ann Manuf Technol 59:37–40

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Livsmedelsverket (2009) The National Food Administration’s environmentally effective food choices. Livsmedelverket, National Food Administration Sweden, Stockholm, Sweden

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdiarmid JI (2013) Is a healthy diet an environmentally sustainable diet? Proc Nutr Soc 72:13–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Macdiarmid JI, Kyle J, Horgan G, Loe J, Fyfe C, Johnstone A, McNeill G (2011) Livewell: a balance of healthy and sustainable food choices. , Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health Aberdeen, United Kingdom

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdiarmid JI, Kyle J, Horgan GW, Loe J, Fyfe C, Johnstone A, McNeill G (2012) Sustainable diets for the future: can we contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by eating a healthy diet? Am J Clin Nutr 96:632–639

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maillot M, Vieux F, Amiot MJ, Darmon N (2010) Individual diet modeling translates nutrient recommendations into realistic and individual-specific food choices. Am J Clin Nutr 91:421–430

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marinussen M, Kramer G, Pluimers J, Blonk H (2012) The environmental impact of our food an analysis based on the food consumption survey 2007–2010 (in Dutch). Blonk Consultants, Gouda, Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  • Mithril C, Dragsted LO, Meyer C, Blauert E, Holta MK, Astrup A (2012) Guidelines for the New Nordic Diet. Public Health Nutr 15(10):1941–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mithril C, Dragsted LO, Meyer C, Tetens I, Biltoft-Jensen A, Astrup A (2013) Dietary composition and nutrient content of the New Nordic Diet. Public Health Nutr 16:777–785

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Netherlands Nutrition Centre (2008) Dutch Food Tables 2008 (Nederlandse Voedingsmiddelentabel 2008) vol nr 200. Voedingscentrum, The Hague, Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  • Netherlands Nutrition Centre (2011) Guidelines for food choices (In Dutch: Richtlijnen Voedselkeuze). pp. 61. Voedingscentrum, The Hague, Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  • Norden (2014) Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2012; Integrating nutrition and physical activity. Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen, Denmark

    Google Scholar 

  • Pereira HM et al (2010) Scenarios for global biodiversity in the 21st century. Science 10:1503–1509

    Google Scholar 

  • Poulsen SK, Due A, et al (2014) Health effect of the New Nordic Diet in adults with increased waist circumference: a 6-mo randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 99(1):35–45

  • Rockström J et al (2009) A safe operating space for humanity. Nature 461:472–475

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saxe H (2014) The New Nordic Diet is an effective tool in environmental protection: it reduces the associated socieconomic cost of diets. Am J Clin Nutr 99:1117–1125

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saxe H, Larsen TM, Mogensen L (2013) The global warming potential of two healthy Nordic diets compared with the average Danish diet. Climate Change 116:249–262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schosler H, de Boer J, Boersema JJ, Aiking H (2015) Meat and masculinity among young Chinese, Turkish and Dutch adults in the Netherlands. Appetite 89:152–159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sevenster MN, Blonk H, Flier S (2010) Environmental analyses food and food losses for priority chain oriented waste streams. (In Dutch Milieuanalyses Voedsel en Voedselverliezen ten behoeve van prioritaire stromen ketengericht afvalbeleid). CE Delft/ Blonk Milieu Advies, Delft, Netherlands

  • Steering Group (2010) Food for Tomorow, Proposal for Finland’s National Food Strategy. Minister of Agriculture and Forestry, Helsinki, Finland

    Google Scholar 

  • Stehfest E, Bouwman L, van Vuuren D, den Elzen M, Eickhout B, Kabat P (2009) Climate benefits of changing diet. Clim Change 95:83–102

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tilman D, Clark M (2014) Global diets link environmental sustainability and human health. Nature 515(7528):518–522

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trichopoulou A et al (2005) Modified Mediterranean diet and survival: EPIC-elderly prospective cohort study. BMJ 330:991–997

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tyszler M, Kramer GFH, Blonk H (2015). Just eating healthier is not enough: studying the environmental impact of different diet scenarios for Dutch women (31–50 years old) by linear programming. Int J of Life Cycle Assess: 1–9

  • Uusitupa M et al (2013) Effects of an isocaloric healthy Nordic diet on insulin sensitivity, lipid profile and inflammation markers in metabolic syndrome—a randomized study (SYSDIET). J Intern Med 274:52–66

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van Dooren C, Marinussen M, Blonk H, Aiking H, Vellinga P (2014) Exploring dietary guidelines based on ecological and nutritional values: a comparison of six dietary patterns. Food Policy 44:36–46

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Dooren C, Tyszler M, Kramer G, Aiking H, Vellinga P (2015) Combining low price, low climate impact and high nutritional value in one basket: example of diet optimisation by linear programming. Sustainability 7:12837–12855

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Kreijl CF, Knaap AGAC, van Raaij JMA (2006) Our food, our health: healthy diet and safe food in the Netherlands. National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Otterloo AH (1990) Eating and appetite in the Netherlands [1840–1990], a historical-sociological study. (In Dutch: Eten en eetlust in Nederland [1840–1990], een historisch-sociologische studie). vol 1. Uitgeverij Bert Bakker, Amsterdam, Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Rossum CTM, Fransen HP, Verkaik-Kloosterman J, Buurma-Rethans EJM, Ocke MC (2011) Dutch National Food Consumption Survey 2007–2010: diet of children and adults aged 7 to 69 years. RIVM, Bilthoven, Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  • Vringer K, Benders R, Wilting H, Brink C, Drissen E, Nijdam D, Hoogervorst N (2010) A hybrid multi-region method (HMR) for assessing the environmental impact of private consumption. Ecol Econ 69:2510–2516

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wegener Sleeswijk A, Kleijn R, Van Zeijts H, Reus J, Meeusen - van Onna M, Leneman H, Sengers H (1996) Application of LCA to agricultural products. CML, Leiden, Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2003) Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases. WHO technical report series, WHO, Geneva, Switserland

    Google Scholar 

  • Willett WC (2001) Eat, drink, and be healthy: the Harvard Medical School guide to healthy eating. Harvard University, Harvard, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • Willett W, Sacks F, Trichopoulou A, Drescher G, Ferro-Luzzi A, Helsing E, Trichopoulos D (1995) Mediterranean diet pyramid: a cultural model for healthy eating. Am J Clin Nutr 61:1402S–1406

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Netherlands Nutrition Centre (Voedingscentrum), Eisenhowerlaan 108, 2517 KL, The Hague, The Netherlands

    Corné van Dooren

  2. Institute for Environmental Studies, VU University, De Boelelaan 1087, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Corné van Dooren & Harry Aiking

Authors
  1. Corné van Dooren
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Harry Aiking
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Corné van Dooren.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Llorenc Milà i Canals

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

van Dooren, C., Aiking, H. Defining a nutritionally healthy, environmentally friendly, and culturally acceptable Low Lands Diet. Int J Life Cycle Assess 21, 688–700 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-015-1007-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-015-1007-3

Keywords