Abstract
Purpose
Environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) is today an important methodology to quantify the life cycle based environmental impacts of products, services or organisations. Since the very first LCA studies, the cumulative energy demand CED (also called ‘primary energy consumption’) has been one of the key indicators being addressed. Despite its popularity, there is no harmonised approach yet and the standards and guidelines define the cumulative energy demand differently. In this paper, an overview of existing and applied life cycle based energy indicators and a unifying approach to establish characterisation factors for the cumulative energy demand indicator are provided. The CED approaches are illustrated in a building’s LCA case study.
Methods
The five approaches are classified into two main concepts, namely the energy harvested and the energy harvestable concepts. The two concepts differ by the conversion efficiency of the energy collecting facility. A unifying ‘energy harvested’ approach is proposed based on four theses, which ensure consistent accounting among renewable and non renewable energy resources.
Results and discussion
The indicator proposed is compared to four other CED indicators, differing in the characterisation factors of fossil and biomass resources (upper or lower heating value), the characterisation factor of uranium and the characterisation factors of renewable energy resources (amount harvested or amount harvestable). The comparison of the five approaches is based on the cumulative energy demand of a newly constructed building of the city of Zürich covering the whole life cycle, including manufacturing and construction, replacement and use phase, and end of life.
The cumulative energy demand of the life cycle of the building differs between 336 MJ oil-eq/m2a (‘CED uranium low’) and 836 MJ oil-eq/m2a (‘CED energy statistics’). The main differences occur in the use phase. The main reason for the large differences in the results are the different concepts to determine the characterisation factors for renewable and nuclear energy resources.
Conclusions
The energy harvested approach ‘CED standard’ is a consistent approach, which quantifies the energy content of all different (renewable and non-renewable) energy resources. The ‘CED standard’ approach and the impact category indicator results computed with this approach reflect the safeguard subject ‘energy resources’ but not (no other) environmental impacts. The energy harvested approach proposed in this paper can readily be implemented in different contexts and applied to various data sets.
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Notes
The maximum systematic deviation in fossil CED values between approaches using the higher and the lower heating value, respectively, is about 10 %.
www.probas.umweltbundesamt.de/php/index.php?, accessed on July 10, 2014.
www.minergie.ch, accessed on August 12, 2014.
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Acknowledgments
We wish to thank Greg Foliente, CSIRO, Melbourne, Australia and two anonymous reviewers for the valuable comments on earlier versions of this manuscript. This work has been carried out in the context of the IEA EBC Annex 57 “Evaluation of Embodied Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Building Construction”. We like to thank the Swiss Office of Energy and the Project Management Jülich, Germany (PTJ) and the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi) for funding the activities which formed the basis for this paper. The authors are solely responsible for the contents and the conclusions.
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Frischknecht, R., Wyss, F., Büsser Knöpfel, S. et al. Cumulative energy demand in LCA: the energy harvested approach. Int J Life Cycle Assess 20, 957–969 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-015-0897-4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-015-0897-4