Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Life cycle assessment of base–load heat sources for district heating system options

  • WOOD AND OTHER RENEWABLE RESOURCES
  • Published:
The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

There has been an increased interest in utilizing renewable energy sources in district heating systems. District heating systems are centralized systems that provide heat for residential and commercial buildings in a community. While various renewable and conventional energy sources can be used in such systems, many stakeholders are interested in choosing the feasible option with the least environmental impacts. This paper evaluates and compares environmental burdens of alternative energy source options for the base–load of a district heating center in Vancouver, British Columbia (BC) using the life cycle assessment method. The considered energy sources include natural gas, wood pellet, sewer heat, and ground heat.

Methods

The life cycle stages considered in the LCA model cover all stages from fuel production, fuel transmission/transportation, construction, operation, and finally demolition of the district heating system. The impact categories were analyzed based on the IMPACT 2002+ method.

Results and discussion

On a life-cycle basis, the global warming effect of renewable energy options were at least 200 kgeqCO2 less than that of the natural gas option per MWh of heat produced by the base–load system. It was concluded that less than 25% of the upstream global warming impact associated with the wood pellet energy source option was due to transportation activities and about 50% of that was resulted from wood pellet production processes. In comparison with other energy options, the wood pellets option has higher impacts on respiratory of inorganics, terrestrial ecotoxicity, acidification, and nutrification categories. Among renewable options, the global warming impact of heat pump options in the studied case in Vancouver, BC, were lower than the wood pellet option due to BC's low carbon electricity generation profile. Ozone layer depletion and mineral extraction were the highest for the heat pump options due to extensive construction required for these options.

Conclusions

Natural gas utilization as the primary heat source for district heat production implies environmental complications beyond just the global warming impacts. Diffusing renewable energy sources for generating the base–load district heat would reduce human toxicity, ecosystem quality degradation, global warming, and resource depletion compared to the case of natural gas. Reducing fossil fuel dependency in various stages of wood pellet production can remarkably reduce the upstream global warming impact of using wood pellets for district heat generation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Ecoinvent v1.2 is a European database provided in the Simapro software. In this study, Ecoinvent database has been adopted by incorporating North American and case specific inputs into Ecoinvent; exception is the case of major equipment supplied from Europe where the Ecoinvent database is used unchanged.

References

  • Athena Sustainable Materials Institute (2005) Cement and structural concrete products: Life cycle inventory update #2. Ottawa, Canada

  • Cuddihy J, Kennedy C, Byer P (2005) Energy use in Canada: environmental impacts and opportunities in relationship to infrastructure systems. C J Civil Eng 32(1):1–15

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Doll R (1988) Effects of exposure to vinyl chloride. An assessment of the evidence. Scand J Work Enviro Health 14(2):61–78

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2003) External combustion sources. In: Stationary point and area sources, AP 42. 5th ed. compilation of air pollutant emission factors No. vol. 1). Washington, DC

  • Eriksson O, Finnveden G, Ekvall T, Björklund A (2007) Life cycle assessment of fuels for district heating: a comparison of waste incineration, biomass and natural gas combustion. Energy Policy 35(2):1346–1362

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frischknecht T, Jungbluth N, Althaus HJ, Doka G, Dones R, Heck T et al (2005) The ecoinvent database: overview and methodological framework. Int J Life Cycle Assess 10:3–9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gagnon L, Bélanger C, Uchiyama Y (2002) Life-cycle assessment of electricity generation options: the status of research in year 2001. Energ Policy 30(14):1267–1278

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghafghazi S, Sowlati T, Sokhansanj S, Melin S (2009) A multicriteria approach to evaluate district heating options. Appl Energ 87(4):1134–1140

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghafghazi S, Sowlati T, Sokhansanj S, Melin S (2010) Techno-economic analysis of renewable energy source options for a district heating project. Int J Energ Res 34:1109–1120

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Government of BC (2010) The BC bioenergy strategy: growing our natural energy advantage. Available from: http://www.energyplan.gov.bc.ca/bioenergy/PDF/BioEnergy_Plan_005_0130_web0000.pdf. Accessed on: 5 Feb 2010

  • Hasler P, Nussbaumer T (1999) Gas cleaning for IC engine applications from fixed bed biomass gasification. Biomass Bioenerg 16(6):385–395

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heller MC, Keoleian GA, Mann MK, Volk TA (2004) Life cycle energy and environmental benefits of generating electricity from willow biomass. Renew Energ 29(7):1023–1042

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hondo H (2005) Life cycle GHG emission analysis of power generation systems: Japanese case. Energy 30(11–12):2042–2056

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • International Standard ISO 14042 (2000) Environmental management—life cycle assessment—life cycle impact assessment. ISO, Geneva

  • Johansson LS, Tullin C, Leckner B, Sjövall P (2003) Particle emissions from biomass combustion in small combustors. Biomass Bioenerg 25(4):435–446

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson E (2009) Goodbye to carbon neutral: getting biomass footprints right. Environ Impact Asses Rev 29(3):165–168

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jolliet O, Margni M, Charles RL, Humbert S, Payet J, Rebitzer G et al (2003) IMPACT 2002+: a new life cycle impact assessment methodology. Int J Life Cycle Assess 8(6):324–330

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jungmeier G, Resch G, Spitzer J (1998) Environmental burdens over the entire life cycle of a biomass CHP plant. Biomass Bioenerg 15(4–5):311–323

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koch FH (2000) Hydropower-internalised costs and externalised benefits. Ottawa, Canada: International Energy Agency (IEA)—Implementing Agreement for Hydropower Technologies and Programmes

  • Li TX, Guo KH, Wang RZ (2002) High temperature hot water heat pump with non-azeotropic refrigerant mixture HCFC-22/HCFC-141b. Energ Convers Manage 43(15):2033–2040

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Magelli F, Boucher K, Bi HT, Melin S, Bonoli A (2009) An environmental impact assessment of exported wood pellets from Canada to Europe. Biomass Bioenerg 33(3):434–441

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mani S (2005) A systems analysis of biomass densification process. Ph.D. Dissertation, the University of British Columbia, Canada

  • Mann M, Spath P (2001) A life cycle assessment of biomass cofiring in a coal-fired power plant. Clean Technol Envir 3(2):81–91

    Google Scholar 

  • Metro Vancouver, Boilers and Process Heaters Emission Regulation Bylaw No. 1087, Vancouver, Canada (2008). Available from: http://www.metrovancouver.org/boards/bylaws/Bylaws/GVRD_Bylaw_1087.pdf

  • Milota MR, West CD, Hartley ID (2005) Gate-to-gate life-cycle inventory of softwood lumber production. Wood Fiber Sci 37:47–57

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources (2009) BC energy plan report on progress. Available from: www.energyplan.gov.bc.ca

  • Niemann T (2006) The state of British Columbia's forests No. SD387.S87S72 2007). British Columbia: Ministry of Forests and Range

  • Norris GA (2004) Simapro database manual. Franklin US LCI library. Available from: http://www.pre.nl/download/manuals/databasemanualfranklinus98.pdf. Accessed on: 2 Feb, 2010

  • Oliver-Solà J, Gabarrell X, Rieradevall J (2009) Environmental impacts of the infrastructure for district heating in urban neighbourhoods. Energ Policy 37:4711–4719

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pa A (2009) Streamlined LCA of wood pellets: Export and possible utilization in UBC boiler house. Available from: http://www.sustain.ubc.ca/seedslibrary/files/SEEDS_Report_Streamlined_LCA_of_Wood_Pellets_051509.pdf. Accessed on: Feb 2010

  • Rafaschieri A, Rapaccini M, Manfrida G (1999) Life cycle assessment of electricity production from poplar energy crops compared with conventional fossil fuels. Energ Convers Manage 40:1477–1493

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ressaire L (2006) Transporting more while consuming less: performance comparison of two different-size engines. Advantage, FERIC 7(20):1–5

    Google Scholar 

  • Sambo SM (2002) Fuel consumption for ground-based harvesting systems in Western Canada. Advantage, FERIC 3(29):1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Shabani N (2009) Incorporating flood control rule curves of the Columbia river hydroelectric system in a multireservoir reinforcement learning optimization model, Master of Applied Science Thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

  • St Lawrence J (2007) A demand perspective on greenhouse gas emissions. EnviroStats 1(2)

  • Statistics Canada (2009) Report on energy supply and demand in canada 2007 No. 57- 003- XIE). Statistics Canada

  • US LCI Database Project (2004a) Natural gas extraction and processing. National Renewable Energy Laboratory

  • US LCI Database Project (2004b) USA integrated steel production. National Renewable Energy Laboratory

  • Vigon BW, Tolle DA, Cornaby BW, Latham HC, Harrison L, Boguski TL et al (1994) In: Curran MA (ed) Life cycle assessment: inventory guidelines and principles. Columbus, OH: Battelle Memorial In, Battelle Institute

  • Zhang Y, McKechnie J, Cormier D, Lyng R, Mabee W, Ogino A et al (2010) Life cycle emissions and cost of producing electricity from coal, natural gas, and wood pellets in Ontario, Canada. Environ Sci Technol 44(1):538–544

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to BC Ministry of Forest and Range (BC MoFR) and Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) for their financial support to carry out this research.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, 2943–2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T-1Z4, Canada

    Saeed Ghafghazi

  2. Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, 2931–2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T-1Z4, Canada

    Taraneh Sowlati

  3. Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of British Columbia, 2360 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada

    Shahab Sokhansanj & Xiaotao Bi

  4. Environmental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, Canada

    Shahab Sokhansanj

  5. Delta Research Corporation, Delta, BC, V4L 2L5, Canada

    Staffan Melin

Authors
  1. Saeed Ghafghazi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Taraneh Sowlati
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Shahab Sokhansanj
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Xiaotao Bi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Staffan Melin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Taraneh Sowlati.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ghafghazi, S., Sowlati, T., Sokhansanj, S. et al. Life cycle assessment of base–load heat sources for district heating system options. Int J Life Cycle Assess 16, 212–223 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-011-0259-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-011-0259-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation