Abstract
This study aims to analyze the social entrepreneurship (SE) learning practices in non-profit organizations in both Canada and Brazil. Research on entrepreneurship has provided the understanding that learning is central to this phenomenon. However, little is known about the learning practices in SE. What research has been undertaken on this topic tends to take a psychological approach that we maintain excludes important social aspects of learning. To address this, we rely upon communities of practice theory, drawing on interviews in non-profit organizations in two different cultural contexts. We identify three learning practices: mutual engagement, shared repertoire, and social interaction, which are configured by power relations. This study, therefore, contributes to the theoretical and practical knowledge of SE learning by studying learning practices in two different geographical regions, showing that power can encourage or inhibit learning practices in SE organizations.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Amin, A., & Roberts, J. (2008). Knowing in action: Beyond communities of practice. Research Policy, 37(2), 353–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2007.11.003
Antonello, C. S., & Godoy, A. S. (2011). Aprendizagem organizacional no Brasil. Bookman Editora.
Apostolakis, C. (2011). The role of higher education in enhancing social entrepreneurship. International Journal of Social Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 1(2), 124–137. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJSEI.2011.043739
Arantes, F. P., Freitag, M. S. B., & Silva Santos, E. L. (2018). Improvisação e aprendizagem de empreendedores informais: A experiência de empreendedores feirantes. Revista de Empreendedorismo e Gestão de Pequenas Empresas, 7(3), 31–66. https://doi.org/10.14211/regepe.v7i3.921
Arbaugh, J. B., Hwang, A., McNally, J. J., Fornaciari, C. J., & Burke-Smalley, L. A. (2021). Discerning citation patterns in dominant BME literature streams: Lessons for BME scholars. Organization Management Journal, 18(3/4), 145–172. https://doi.org/10.1108/OMJ-06-2020-0967
Austin, J., Stevenson, H., & Wei-Skillern, J. (2006). Social and commercial entrepreneurship: Same, different, or both? Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006.00107.x
Aycan, Z., Kanungo, R. N., & Sinha, J. B. (1999). Organizational culture and human resource management practices: The model of culture fit. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 30(4), 501–526. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022199030004006
Baba, Y. (2015). Does learning orientation matter for nonprofit organization performance? Empirical evidence from Ghana. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 36(3), 234–252. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-05-2013-0056
Bacq, S., & Lumpkin, G. T. (2020). Social entrepreneurship and COVID-19. Journal of Management Studies, 58(1), 285–288. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12641
Baden, D., & Parkes, C. (2013). Experiential learning: Inspiring the business leaders of tomorrow. Journal of Management Development, 32(3), 295–308. https://doi.org/10.1108/02621711311318283
Bosma, N., Schøtt, T., Terjesen, S. A., & Kew, P. (2016, July 1). Global entrepreneurship monitor 2015 to 2016: Special topic report on social entrepreneurship. Retrieved July 18, 2019, from https://www.gemconsortium.org/report/gem-2015-report-on-social-entrepreneurship. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2786949
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Brown, J. S., & Duguid, P. (2001). Knowledge and organization: A social-practice perspective. Organization Science, 12(2), 198–213. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.12.2.198.10116
Cappelli, P., & Sherer, P. D. (1991). The missing role of context in OB: The need for a meso-level approach. Research in Organizational Behavior, 13, 55–110.
Carbone, P. P. (2000). Cultura organizacional do setor público brasileiro: Desenvolvendo uma metodologia de gerenciamento da cultura. Revista De Administração Pública, 34(2), 65–81.
Cavalcanti, M. F. R. (2021). Social entrepreneurship and social change: A practice-based study in non-governmental organizations. RAUSP Management Journal, 56, 170–185. https://doi.org/10.1108/RAUSP-05-2020-0091
Chandra, Y., & Kerlin, J. A. (2021). Social entrepreneurship in context: Pathways for new contributions in the field. Journal of Asian Public Policy, 14(2), 135–151. https://doi.org/10.1080/17516234.2020.1845472
Choi, S. (2014). Learning orientation and market orientation as catalysts for innovation in nonprofit organizations. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 43(2), 393–413. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764012465491
Cope, J. (2003). Entrepreneurial learning and critical reflection: Discontinuous events as triggers for ‘higher-level’learning. Management Learning, 34(4), 429–450. https://doi.org/10.1177/1350507603039067
Cope, J., & Watts, G. (2000). Learning by doing–an exploration of experience, critical incidents and reflection in entrepreneurial learning. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 6(3), 104–124. https://doi.org/10.1108/13552550010346208
Dacin, P. A., Dacin, M. T., & Matear, M. (2010). Social entrepreneurship: Why we don’t need a new theory and how we move forward from here. Academy of Management Perspectives, 24(3), 37–57. https://doi.org/10.5465/amp.24.3.37
Dastmalchian, A., Lee, S., & Ng, I. (2000). The interplay between organizational and national cultures: A comparison of organizational practices in Canada and South Korea using the competing values framework. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 11(2), 388–412. https://doi.org/10.1080/095851900339927
De Bruin, A., & Lewis, K. V. (2015). Traversing the terrain of context in social entrepreneurship. Journal of Social Entrepreneurship, 6(2), 127–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/19420676.2015.1038005
Dees, J. G. (2001). The meaning of social entrepreneurship. Retrieved 2 July 2022 from https://centers.fuqua.duke.edu/case/wpcontent/uploads/sites/7/2015/03/Article_Dees_MeaningofSocialEntrepreneurship_2001.pdf
Defourny, J., Nyssens, M., & Brolis, O. (2021). Testing social enterprise models across the world: Evidence from the “International Comparative Social Enterprise Models (ICSEM) project.” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 50(2), 420–440. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764020959470
Doherty, B., Haugh, H., & Lyon, F. (2014). Social enterprises as hybrid organizations: A review and research agenda. International Journal of Management Reviews, 16(4), 417–436. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijmr.12028
Dwivedi, A., & Weerawardena, J. (2018). Conceptualizing and operationalizing the social entrepreneurship construct. Journal of Business Research, 86, 32–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.01.053
Faminow, M. D., Carter, S. E., & Lundy, M. (2009). Social entrepreneurship and learning: The case of the Central America learning alliance. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 14(04), 433–450. https://doi.org/10.1142/S108494670900134X
Farnsworth, V., Kleanthous, I., & Wenger-Trayner, E. (2016). Communities of practice as a social theory of learning: A conversation with Etienne Wenger. British Journal of Educational Studies, 64(2), 139–160. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.2015.1133799
Fayolle, A., & Gailly, B. (2008). From craft to science: Teaching models and learning processes in entrepreneurship education. Journal of European Industrial Training, 32(7), 569–593. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090590810899838
Foucault, M. (1980). Power/knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings. Pantheon.
Freitas, A. B. (1997). Traços brasileiros para uma análise organizacional. In F. C. P. Motta & M. P. Caldas (Eds.), Cultura organizacional e cultura brasileira (pp. 38–54). Atlas.
Funken, R., Gielnik, M. M., & Foo, M. D. (2020). How can problems be turned into something good? The role of entrepreneurial learning and error mastery orientation. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 44(2), 315–338. https://doi.org/10.1177/1042258718801600
Gherardi, S., Nicolini, D., & Odella, F. (1998). Toward a social understanding of how people learn in organizations: The notion of situated curriculum. Management Learning, 29(3), 273–297. https://doi.org/10.1177/1350507698293002
Gramsci, A. (1957). The Modern Prince and Other Writings. International.
Granados, M. L., Mohamed, S., & Hlupic, V. (2017). Knowledge management activities in social enterprises: Lessons for small and non-profit firms. Journal of Knowledge Management, 21(2), 376–396. https://doi.org/10.1108/JKM-01-2016-0026
Gupta, P., Chauhan, S., Paul, J., & Jaiswal, M. P. (2020). Social entrepreneurship research: A review and future research agenda. Journal of Business Research, 113, 209–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.03.032
Hahmann, T. (April 23, 2021). Volunteering counts: Formal and informal contributions of Canadians in 2018. Statistics Canada. Retrieved July 8, 2022, from https://bc.healthyagingcore.ca/sites/default/files/2021-05/00002-eng.pdf
Hartley, J. (2004). Case study research. In C. Casell & G. Symon (Eds.), Essential guide to qualitative .methods in organizational research (pp. 145–148). Sage.
Hennink, M., Hutter, I., & Bailey, A. (2020). Qualitative research methods. Sage.
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Intercultural cooperation and its importance for survival. McGraw-Hill.
Holtham, C., & Rich, M. (2012). Non-formal management learning through electronic experiential fiction. Journal of Management Development, 31(3), 287–297. https://doi.org/10.1108/02621711211208916
Hota, P. K., Subramanian, B., & Narayanamurthy, G. (2020). Mapping the intellectual structure of social entrepreneurship research: A citation/co-citation analysis. Journal of Business Ethics, 166(1), 89–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04129-4
Howorth, C., Smith, S. M., & Parkinson, C. (2012). Social learning and social entrepreneurship education. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 11(3), 371–389. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2011.0022
Hume, C., & Hume, M. (2016). What about us? Exploring small to medium Australian not for-profit firms and knowledge management. Journal of Knowledge Management, 20(1), 104–124. https://doi.org/10.1108/JKM-12-2014-0497
Johns, G. (2006). The essential impact of context on organizational behavior. Academy of Management Review, 31, 386–408. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.20208687
Karataş-Özkan, M. (2011). Understanding relational qualities of entrepreneurial learning: Towards a multi-layered approach. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 23(9–10), 877–906. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2011.577817
Ko, W. W., & Liu, G. (2015). Understanding the process of knowledge spillovers: Learning to become social enterprises. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 9(3), 263–285. https://doi.org/10.1002/sej.1198
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lewis, J., & Mc Nicholls, C. (2013). Design Issues. In J. Ritchie, J. Lewis, C. Mc Nicholls, & R. Ormston (Eds.), Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers (2nd ed., pp. 47–70). Sage.
Light, P. C. (2006). Reshaping social entrepreneurship. Stanford Social Innovation Review, 4(3), 47–51.
Litzky, B. E., Godshalk, V. M., & Walton-Bongers, C. (2010). Social entrepreneurship and community leadership: A service-learning model for management education. Journal of Management Education, 34(1), 142–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/1052562909338038
Liu, G., & Ko, W. W. (2012). Organizational learning and marketing capability development: A study of the charity retailing operations of British social enterprise. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 41(4), 580–608. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764011411722
Lopez, F. G. (2018, June 7). Perfil das organizações da sociedade civil no Brasil. Brasília: Ipea. Retrieved September 9, 2019, from https://www.ipea.gov.br/portal/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=33432
Macke, J., Sarate, J. A. R., Domeneghini, J., & da Silva, K. A. (2018). Where do we go from now? Research framework for social entrepreneurship. Journal of Cleaner Production, 183, 677–685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.02.017
Mahmoud, M. A., & Yusif, B. (2012). Market orientation, learning orientation, and the performance of nonprofit organisations (NPOs). International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 61(6), 624–652. https://doi.org/10.1108/17410401211249193
Mair, J. (2010). Social entrepreneurship: Taking stock and looking ahead. In A. Fayolle & H. Matlay (Eds.), Handbook of research on social entrepreneurship (pp. 16–33). Edward Elgar Publishing.
Mair, J., & Marti, I. (2006). Social entrepreneurship research: A source of explanation, prediction, and delight. Journal of World Business, 41(1), 36–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2005.09.002
Mano, R. S. (2010). Past organizational change and managerial evaluations of crisis: A case of double-loop learning effects in non-profit organizations. Journal of Workplace Learning, 22(8), 489–507. https://doi.org/10.1108/13665621011082864
Martin, R. L., & Osberg, S. (2007). Social entrepreneurship: The case for definition. Stanford Social Innovation Review, 5(2), 28–39.
McDougle, L., McDonald, D., Li, H., McIntyre Miller, W., & Xu, C. (2017). Can philanthropy be taught? Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 46(2), 330–351. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764016662355
McMurtry, J. J., & Brouard, F. (2015). Social enterprises in Canada: An introduction. Canadian Journal of Nonprofit and Social Economy Research, 6(1), 6–17.
McNally, J. J., Piperopoulos, P., Welsh, D. H., Mengel, T., Tantawy, M., & Papageorgiadis, N. (2020). From pedagogy to andragogy: Assessing the impact of social entrepreneurship course syllabi on the Millennial learner. Journal of Small Business Management, 58(5), 871–892. https://doi.org/10.1080/00472778.2019.1677059
Minniti, M., & Bygrave, W. (2001). A dynamic model of entrepreneurial learning. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 25(3), 5–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/104225870102500301
Montgomery, A. W., Dacin, P. A., & Dacin, M. T. (2012). Collective social entrepreneurship: Collaboratively shaping social good. Journal of Business Ethics, 111(3), 375–388. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-1501-5
Motta, F. P., & Caldas, M. (1997). Cultura organizacional e cultura brasileira. Atlas.
Munoz, S. A., Steiner, A., & Farmer, J. (2015). Processes of community-led social enterprise development: Learning from the rural context. Community Development Journal, 50(3), 478–493. https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/bsu055
Musante, K., & DeWalt, B. R. (2010). Participant observation: A guide for fieldworkers. Rowman Altamira.
Nelson, R. E., & Gopalan, S. (2003). Do organizational cultures replicate national cultures? Isomorphism, rejection and reciprocal opposition in the corporate values of three countries. Organization Studies, 24(7), 1115–1151. https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406030247006
Oliveira, J., & Cassandre, M. (2023). Aprender a empreender: Delineando os aspectos da aprendizagem empreendedora social na universidade. Contextus – Revista Contemporânea De Economia E Gestão, 21, e81463. https://doi.org/10.19094/contextus.2023.81463
Otaka, K. (2017). From “employed work” to “associated work” in a diverse society: A challenge of social enterprise in creating a new paradigm of community development learning through works with multi-stakeholders. Asia Pacific Education Review, 18(2), 235–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-017-9487-4
Patton, M. Q. (2014). Qualitative research & evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice. Sage.
Pittaway, L., & Cope, J. (2007). Simulating entrepreneurial learning: Integrating experiential and collaborative approaches to learning. Management Learning, 38(2), 211–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1350507607075776
Politis, D. (2005). The process of entrepreneurial learning: A conceptual framework. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 29(4), 399–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2005.00091.x
Prates, MAs., & Barros, B. T. (1997). O estilo brasileiro de administrar: sumário de um modelo de ação cultural brasileiro com base na gestão empresarial. In F. C. P. Motta & M. P. Caldas (Eds.), Cultura organizacional e cultura brasileira (pp. 55–69). Atlas.
Rae, D. (2000). Understanding entrepreneurial learning: A question of how? International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 6(3), 145–159. https://doi.org/10.1108/13552550010346497
Rae, D. (2017). Entrepreneurial learning: Peripherality and connectedness. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 23(3), 486–503. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-05-2016-0132
Richards, L. (1999). Using NVivo in qualitative research. Sage.
Saebi, T., Foss, N. J., & Linder, S. (2019). Social entrepreneurship research: Past achievements and future promises. Journal of Management, 45(1), 70–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206318793196
Santos, J. N. (1996). Paratodos Bahia: Uma organização no jogo do bicho. Organizações & Sociedade, 9(4), 71–96. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1984-92301996000300004
Scheiber, L. (2016). How social entrepreneurs in the third sector learn from life experiences. VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 27(4), 1694–1717. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-015-9597-8
Sengupta, S., Sahay, A., & Croce, F. (2018). Conceptualizing social entrepreneurship in the context of emerging economies: An integrative review of past research from BRIICS. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 14(4), 771–803. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-017-0483-2
Shane, S. A. (2003). A general theory of entrepreneurship: The individual-opportunity nexus. Edward Elgar Publishing.
Shane, S., & Venkataraman, S. (2000). The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research. Academy of Management Review, 25(1), 217–226. https://doi.org/10.2307/259271
Shaw, E., & de Bruin, A. (2013). Reconsidering capitalism: The promise of social innovation and social entrepreneurship? International Small Business Journal, 31(7), 737–746. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242613497494
Silveira, R. A. D., & Crubelatte, J. (2007). The notion of Brazilian organizational culture: Questionable generalizations and vague concepts. Critical Perspectives on International Business, 3(2), 150–169. https://doi.org/10.1108/17422040710744953
Simón-Moya, V., & Rodríguez-García, M. (2021). The Emergence of Social Entrepreneurship: Individuals and Social Ventures as Agents of Change. Springer.
Smith, S., & Smith, L. (2017). Assessing the value of action learning for social enterprises and charities. Action Learning: Research and Practice, 14(3), 230–242. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767333.2017.1288081
Steyaert, C., & Landström, H. (2011). Enacting entrepreneurship research in a pioneering, provocative and participative way: On the work of Bengt Johannisson. Small Business Economics, 36(2), 123–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-009-9213-7
Tandon, A. (2014). Investigating learning in social enterprises: A boundary perspective. Social Enterprise Journal, 10(2), 155–172. https://doi.org/10.1108/SEJ-05-2013-0022
Thomson Reuters Foundation. (2019). The best countries to be a Social Entrepreneur 2019. Retrieved 21 March 2020 from http://poll2019.trust.org/
Tracey, P., & Phillips, N. (2007). The distinctive challenge of educating social entrepreneurs: A postscript and rejoinder to the special issue on entrepreneurship education. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 6(2), 264–271. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2007.25223465
Unit, E. I. (2021). Democracy Index 2021: The China challenge. The economist group. Retrieved 5 July 2022 from https://www.eiu.com/n/campaigns/democracy-index-2021-download-success/
van der Horst, D. (2008). Social enterprise and renewable energy: Emerging initiatives and communities of practice. Social Enterprise Journal, 4(3), 171–185. https://doi.org/10.1108/17508610810922686
van Ruysseveldt, J., & van Dijke, M. (2011). When are workload and workplace learning opportunities related in a curvilinear manner? The moderating role of autonomy. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79(2), 470–483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2011.03.003
Wang, C. L., & Chugh, H. (2014). Entrepreneurial learning: Past research and future challenges. International Journal of Management Reviews, 16(1), 24–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijmr.12007
Welsh, E. (2002). Dealing with data: Using NVivo in the qualitative data analysis process. Qualitative Social Research, 3(2), 20–30. https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-3.2.865
Welter, F. (2011). Contextualizing entrepreneurship—conceptual challenges and ways forward. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35(1), 165–184. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2010.00427.x
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. University Press.
Wenger, E. (2000). Communities of practice and social learning systems. Organization, 7(2), 225–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/135050840072002
Wenger, E. (2011). Communities of practice: A brief introduction. Retrieved 7 April 2020 from https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/xmlui/handle/1794/11736
Widjojo, H., & Gunawan, S. (2020). Indigenous tradition: An overlooked encompassing-factor in social entrepreneurship. Journal of Social Entrepreneurship, 11(1), 88–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/19420676.2019.1579752
Yeo, A., Legard, R., Keegan, J., Ward, K., Mc Nicholls, C., & Lewis, J. (2013). In-depth interviews. In J. Ritchie, J. Lewis, C. Mc Nicholls, & R. Ormston (Eds.), Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers (2nd ed., pp. 177–208). London: Sage.
Yin, R. K. (1994). Case study research. Sage.
Acknowledgements
We thank the participants of the two non-profit organizations in Brazil and Canada and the anonymous reviewers for their valuable and constructive suggestions.
Funding
This study was supported by the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel – CAPES -, under Grant (1726704), and the Canadian Bureau of International Education – CBIE -, under Grant (171097).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed equally to the study. All authors agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
The authors obtained ethics approval for the study.
Consent to participate
The study followed the guidelines for consent to participate under the ethics approval.
Competing interests
We declare we do not have any conflicts of interest in the present research.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Chaves Júnior, L.R., Freitag, M.S.B. & McNally, J.J. Learning practices in social entrepreneurship: a cross-cultural comparison of non-profit organizations in Canada and Brazil. Int Entrep Manag J (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-024-00985-3
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-024-00985-3