Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Effects of endurance, circuit, and relaxing training on cardiovascular risk factors in hypertensive elderly patients

  • Published:
AGE Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Recommendations for prevention of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) risk factors among older adults highlighted the importance of exercise-based interventions, including endurance training (ET). However, the evidence of efficacy of other interventions based on short-bouts of exercise (circuit training, CT), and the practice of breath-control and meditation (relaxing training, RT) is growing. The aim of this study was to elucidate if CT or RT are equally effective in CVD risk factors reduction compared to ET. To this purpose, in 40 elderly participants, with clinically diagnosed grade 1 hypertension, resting blood pressure, blood glucose, and cholesterol levels, peak oxygen uptake (\( \dot{V}{o}_2\mathrm{peak} \)), mechanical efficiency and quality of life were evaluated before and after 12 weeks of ET, CT, and RT treatments. Resting blood pressure reduced significantly in all groups by ∼11 %. In ET, blood cholesterol levels (−18 %), \( \dot{V}{o}_2\mathrm{peak} \) (+8 %), mechanical efficiency (+9 %), and quality of life scores (+36 %) ameliorated. In CT blood glucose levels (−11 %), \( \dot{V}{o}_2\mathrm{peak} \) (+7 %) and quality of life scores (+35 %) were bettered. Conversely, in RT, the lower blood pressure went along only with an improvement in the mental component of quality of life (+42 %). ET and CT were both appropriate interventions to reduce CVDs risk factors, because blood pressure reduction was accompanied by decreases in blood glucose and cholesterol levels, increases in \( \dot{V}{o}_2\mathrm{peak} \), mechanical efficiency, and quality of life. Although RT influenced only blood pressure and quality of life, this approach would be an attractive alternative for old individuals unable or reluctant to carry out ET or CT.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Apolone G, Mosconi P (1998) The Italian SF-36 Health Survey: translation, validation and norming. J Clin Epidemiol 51(11):1025–1036

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aronow WS, Fleg JL, Pepine CJ, Artinian NT, Bakris G, Brown AS, Ferdinand KC, Forciea MA, Frishman WH, Jaigobin C, Kostis JB, Mancia G, Oparil S, Ortiz E, Reisin E, Rich MW, Schocken DD, Weber MA, Wesley DJ, Harrington RA, Force AT (2011) ACCF/AHA 2011 expert consensus document on hypertension in the elderly: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Task Force on Clinical Expert Consensus Documents. Circulation 123(21):2434–2506. doi:10.1161/CIR.0b013e31821daaf6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Astrand P-O (2003) Textbook of work physiology: physiological bases of exercise. Human Kinetics, Champaign

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett JD, Close GL, MacLaren DP, Gregson W, Drust B, Morton JP (2011) High-intensity interval running is perceived to be more enjoyable than moderate-intensity continuous exercise: implications for exercise adherence. J Sports Sci 29(6):547–553. doi:10.1080/02640414.2010.545427

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blanco-Rivero J, Roque FR, Sastre E, Caracuel L, Couto GK, Avendano MS, Paula SM, Rossoni LV, Salaices M, Balfagon G (2013) Aerobic exercise training increases neuronal nitric oxide release and bioavailability and decreases noradrenaline release in mesenteric artery from spontaneously hypertensive rats. J Hypertens 31(5):916–926. doi:10.1097/HJH.0b013e32835f749c

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Braz NF, Carneiro MV, Oliveira-Ferreira F, Arrieiro AN, Amorim FT, Lima MM, Avelar NC, Lacerda AC, Peixoto MF (2012) Influence of aerobic training on cardiovascular and metabolic parameters in ederly hypertensive women. Int J Prevent Med 3(9):652–659

    Google Scholar 

  • Brito Ade F, de Oliveira CV, Santos Mdo S, Santos Ada C (2014) High-intensity exercise promotes postexercise hypotension greater than moderate intensity in elderly hypertensive individuals. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 34(2):126–132. doi:10.1111/cpf.12074

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bruce RA, Kusumi F, Hosmer D (1973) Maximal oxygen intake and nomographic assessment of functional aerobic impairment in cardiovascular disease. Am Heart J 85(4):546–562

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cadore EL, Izquierdo M (2015) Exercise interventions in polypathological aging patients that coexist with diabetes mellitus: improving functional status and quality of life. Age 37(3):9800. doi:10.1007/s11357-015-9800-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carrick-Ranson GC, Hastings JL, Bhella PS, Fujimoto N, Shibata S, Palmer MD, Boyd K, Livingston S, Dijk E, Levine BD (2014) The effect of lifelong exercise dose on cardiovascular function during exercise. J Appl Physiol. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00342.2013

    PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Clifford PS (2007) Skeletal muscle vasodilatation at the onset of exercise. J Physiol 583(Pt 3):825–833. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2007.135673

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen J (1988) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Lawrence Erlbaum associates

  • Duffield R, Dawson B, Pinnington HC, Wong P (2004) Accuracy and reliability of a Cosmed K4b2 portable gas analysis system. J Sci Med Sport 7(1):11–22

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Esposito F, Mathieu-Costello O, Shabetai R, Wagner PD, Richardson RS (2010) Limited maximal exercise capacity in patients with chronic heart failure: partitioning the contributors. J Am Coll Cardiol 55(18):1945–1954. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2009.11.086

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Esposito F, Reese V, Shabetai R, Wagner PD, Richardson RS (2011) Isolated quadriceps training increases maximal exercise capacity in chronic heart failure: the role of skeletal muscle convective and diffusive oxygen transport. J Am Coll Cardiol 58(13):1353–1362. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2011.06.025

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gibala MJ, Little JP, Macdonald MJ, Hawley JA (2012) Physiological adaptations to low-volume, high-intensity interval training in health and disease. J Physiol 590(Pt 5):1077–1084. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2011.224725

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbs CL, Gibson WR (1972) Energy production of rat soleus muscle. Am J Physiol 223(4):864–871

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Go AS, Mozaffarian D, Roger VL, Benjamin EJ, Berry JD, Borden WB, Bravata DM, Dai S, Ford ES, Fox CS, Franco S, Fullerton HJ, Gillespie C, Hailpern SM, Heit JA, Howard VJ, Huffman MD, Kissela BM, Kittner SJ, Lackland DT, Lichtman JH, Lisabeth LD, Magid D, Marcus GM, Marelli A, Matchar DB, McGuire DK, Mohler ER, Moy CS, Mussolino ME, Nichol G, Paynter NP, Schreiner PJ, Sorlie PD, Stein J, Turan TN, Virani SS, Wong ND, Woo D, Turner MB, American Heart Association Statistics C and Stroke Statistics S (2013) Heart disease and stroke statistics--2013 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 127(1):e6–e245. doi:10.1161/CIR.0b013e31828124ad

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goso Y, Asanoi H, Ishise H, Kameyama T, Hirai T, Nozawa T, Takashima S, Umeno K, Inoue H (2001) Respiratory modulation of muscle sympathetic nerve activity in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation 104(4):418–423

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guimaraes GV, Ciolac EG, Carvalho VO, D’Avila VM, Bortolotto LA, Bocchi EA (2010) Effects of continuous vs. interval exercise training on blood pressure and arterial stiffness in treated hypertension. Hypertens Res 33(6):627–632

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen AH, Nielsen JJ, Saltin B, Hellsten Y (2010) Exercise training normalizes skeletal muscle vascular endothelial growth factor levels in patients with essential hypertension. J Hypertens 28(6):1176–1185. doi:10.1097/HJH.0b013e3283379120

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hering D, Kucharska W, Kara T, Somers VK, Parati G, Narkiewicz K (2013) Effects of acute and long-term slow breathing exercise on muscle sympathetic nerve activity in untreated male patients with hypertension. J Hypertens 31(4):739–746. doi:10.1097/HJH.0b013e32835eb2cf

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoff J, Tjonna AE, Steinshamn S, Hoydal M, Richardson RS, Helgerud J (2007) Maximal strength training of the legs in COPD: a therapy for mechanical inefficiency. Med Sci Sports Exerc 39(2):220–226. doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000246989.48729.39

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hood MS, Little JP, Tarnopolsky MA, Myslik F, Gibala MJ (2011) Low-volume interval training improves muscle oxidative capacity in sedentary adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc 43(10):1849–1856. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e3182199834

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter GR, Newcomer BR, Larson-Meyer DE, Bamman MM, Weinsier RL (2001) Muscle metabolic economy is inversely related to exercise intensity and type II myofiber distribution. Muscle Nerve 24(5):654–661. doi:10.1002/mus.1051

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karlsen T, Helgerud J, Stoylen A, Lauritsen N, Hoff J (2009) Maximal strength training restores walking mechanical efficiency in heart patients. Int J Sports Med 30(5):337–342. doi:10.1055/s-0028-1105946

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lamina S (2010) Effects of continuous and interval training programs in the management of hypertension: a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Hypertens 12(11):841–849. doi:10.1111/j.1751-7176.2010.00315.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R, Collaboration PS (2002) Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet 360(9349):1903–1913

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mancia G, Fagard R, Narkiewicz K, Redon J, Zanchetti A, Bohm M, Christiaens T, Cifkova R, De Backer G, Dominiczak A, Galderisi M, Grobbee DE, Jaarsma T, Kirchhof P, Kjeldsen SE, Laurent S, Manolis AJ, Nilsson PM, Ruilope LM, Schmieder RE, Sirnes PA, Sleight P, Viigimaa M, Waeber B, Zannad F, Council ESHS, Redon J, Dominiczak A, Narkiewicz K, Nilsson PM, Burnier M, Viigimaa M, Ambrosioni E, Caufield M, Coca A, Olsen MH, Schmieder RE, Tsioufis C, van de Borne P, ESCCfP Guidelines, Zamorano JL, Achenbach S, Baumgartner H, Bax JJ, Bueno H, Dean V, Deaton C, Erol C, Fagard R, Ferrari R, Hasdai D, Hoes AW, Kirchhof P, Knuuti J, Kolh P, Lancellotti P, Linhart A, Nihoyannopoulos P, Piepoli MF, Ponikowski P, Sirnes PA, Tamargo JL, Tendera M, Torbicki A, Wijns W, Windecker S, Document R, Clement DL, Coca A, Gillebert TC, Tendera M, Rosei EA, Ambrosioni E, Anker SD, Bauersachs J, Hitij JB, Caulfield M, De Buyzere M, De Geest S, Derumeaux GA, Erdine S, Farsang C, Funck-Brentano C, Gerc V, Germano G, Gielen S, Haller H, Hoes AW, Jordan J, Kahan T, Komajda M, Lovic D, Mahrholdt H, Olsen MH, Ostergren J, Parati G, Perk J, Polonia J, Popescu BA, Reiner Z, Ryden L, Sirenko Y, Stanton A, Struijker-Boudier H, Tsioufis C, van de Borne P, Vlachopoulos C, Volpe M, Wood DA (2013a) 2013 ESH/ESC Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: The Task Force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J 34(28):60. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/eht151

    Google Scholar 

  • Mancia G, Fagard R, Narkiewicz K, Redon J, Zanchetti A, Bohm M, Christiaens T, Cifkova R, De Backer G, Dominiczak A, Galderisi M, Grobbee DE, Jaarsma T, Kirchhof P, Kjeldsen SE, Laurent S, Manolis AJ, Nilsson PM, Ruilope LM, Schmieder RE, Sirnes PA, Sleight P, Viigimaa M, Waeber B, Zannad F, List of authorsTask Force M (2013b) 2013 ESH/ESC Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: The Task Force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). J Hypertens 31(7):1281–1357. doi:10.1097/01.hjh.0000431740.32696.cc

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Najjar SS, Scuteri A, Lakatta EG (2005) Arterial aging: is it an immutable cardiovascular risk factor? Hypertension 46(3):454–462. doi:10.1161/01.HYP.0000177474.06749.98

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oken BS, Zajdel D, Kishiyama S, Flegal K, Dehen C, Haas M, Kraemer DF, Lawrence J, Leyva J (2006) Randomized, controlled, six-month trial of yoga in healthy seniors: effects on cognition and quality of life. Altern Ther Health Med 12(1):40–47

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pal S, Radavelli-Bagatini S, Ho S (2013) Potential benefits of exercise on blood pressure and vascular function. J Am Soc Hypertens 7(6):13. doi:10.1016/j.jash.2013.07.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patel C (1975) 12-month follow-up of yoga and bio-feedback in the management of hypertension. Lancet 7898:62–64

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paterson DH, Govindasamy D, Vidmar M, Cunningham DA, Koval JJ (2004) Longitudinal study of determinants of dependence in an elderly population. J Am Geriatr Soc 52(10):1632–1638. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2004.52454.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perrault H (2006) Efficiency of movement in health and chronic disease. Clin Invest Med 29(2):117–121

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pescatello LS, Franklin BA, Fagard R, Farquhar WB, Kelley GA, Ray CA (2004) Exercise and hypertension. Med Sci Sports Exerc 36(3):533–553. doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000115224.88514.3a

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pesta D, Hoppel F, Macek C, Messner H, Faulhaber M, Kobel C, Parson W, Burtscher M, Schocke M, Gnaiger E (2011) Similar qualitative and quantitative changes of mitochondrial respiration following strength and endurance training in normoxia and hypoxia in sedentary humans. Am J Physiol Reg Integr Comp Physiol 301(4):R1078–R1087. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00285.2011

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Poole DC, Gaesser GA, Hogan MC, Knight DR, Wagner PD (1992) Pulmonary and leg VO2 during submaximal exercise: implications for muscular efficiency. J Appl Physiol 72(2):805–810

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reckelhoff JF (2001) Gender differences in the regulation of blood pressure. Hypertension 37(5):1199–1208

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rhea MR (2004) Determining the magnitude of treatment effects in strength training research through the use of the effect size. J Strength Cond Res 18(4):918–920. doi:10.1519/14403.1

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson RS, Leek BT, Gavin TP, Haseler LJ, Mudaliar SR, Henry R, Mathieu-Costello O, Wagner PD (2004) Reduced mechanical efficiency in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease but normal peak VO2 with small muscle mass exercise. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 169(1):89–96. doi:10.1164/rccm.200305-627OC

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ricos C, Alvarez V, Cava F, Garcia-Lario JV, Hernandez A, Jimenez CV, Minchinela J, Perich C, Simon M (1999) Current databases on biological variation: pros, cons and progress. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 59(7):491–500

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riescher B, Bourdarias JP, Dubourg O, Jondeau G (2004) Skeletal muscle efficiency in heart failure. Ann Cardiol Angeiol 53(4):188–192

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodrigues B, Jorge L, Mostarda CT, Rosa KT, Medeiros A, Malfitano C, de Souza AL Jr, Viegas KA, Lacchini S, Curi R, Brum PC, De Angelis K, Irigoyen MC (2012) Aerobic exercise training delays cardiac dysfunction and improves autonomic control of circulation in diabetic rats undergoing myocardial infarction. J Cardiac Fail 18(9):734–744. doi:10.1016/j.cardfail.2012.07.006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Romero-Arenas S, Martinez-Pascual M and Alcaraz PE (2013) Impact of resistance circuit training on neuromuscular, cardiorespiratory and body composition adaptations in the elderly. Aging Dis 4(5):256–63. doi: 10.14336/AD.2013.0400256

  • Santaella DF, Araujo EA, Ortega KC, Tinucci T, Mion D Jr, Negrao CE, de Moraes Forjaz CL (2006) Aftereffects of exercise and relaxation on blood pressure. Clin J Sport Med 16(4):341–347

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheuermann BW, Bell C, Paterson DH, Barstow TJ, Kowalchuk JM (2002) Oxygen uptake kinetics for moderate exercise are speeded in older humans by prior heavy exercise. J Appl Physiol 92(2):609–616. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00186.2001

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seals DR, Jablonski KL, Donato AJ (2011) Aging and vascular endothelial function in humans. Clin Sci 120(9):357–375. doi:10.1042/CS20100476

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Short KR, Vittone JL, Bigelow ML, Proctor DN, Rizza RA, Coenen-Schimke JM, Nair KS (2003) Impact of aerobic exercise training on age-related changes in insulin sensitivity and muscle oxidative capacity. Diabetes 52(8):1888–1896

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sousa N, Mendes R, Abrantes C, Sampaio J, Oliveira J (2013) Long-term effects of aerobic training versus combined aerobic and resistance training in modifying cardiovascular disease risk factors in healthy elderly men. Geriatr Geront Int 13(4):928–935. doi:10.1111/ggi.12033

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spicuzza L, Gabutti A, Porta C, Montano N, Bernardi L (2000) Yoga and chemoreflex response to hypoxia and hypercapnia. Lancet 356(9240):1495–1496. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02881-6

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tolonen H, Koponen P, Mindell J, Mannisto S, Kuulasmaa K (2013) European health examination survey--towards a sustainable monitoring system. Eur J Pub Health. doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckt107

    Google Scholar 

  • Totsikas C, Rohm J, Kantartzis K, Thamer C, Rittig K, Machann J, Schick F, Hansel J, Niess A, Fritsche A, Haring HU, Stefan N (2011) Cardiorespiratory fitness determines the reduction in blood pressure and insulin resistance during lifestyle intervention. J Hypertens 29(6):1220–1227. doi:10.1097/HJH.0b013e3283469910

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Venturelli M, Richardson RS, Ortega J (2012a) Skeletal muscle mechanical efficiency does/does not increase with age. J Appl Physiol. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01438.2012

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Venturelli M, Schena F, Richardson RS (2012b) The role of exercise capacity in the health and longevity of centenarians. Maturitas 73(2):115–120. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2012.07.009

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Venturelli M, Schena F, Scarsini R, Muti E, Richardson RS (2013) Limitations to exercise in female centenarians: evidence that muscular efficiency tempers the impact of failing lungs. Age 35(3):861–870. doi:10.1007/s11357-011-9379-1

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Y, Haddad A, Su SW, Celler BG, Coutts AJ, Duffield R, Donges CE, Nguyen HT (2014) An equivalent circuit model for onset and offset exercise response. Biomed Eng Online 13(1):145. doi:10.1186/1475-925X-13-145

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors greatly appreciate the time and effort of the patients that participated to this study. We wish to thank Stefano Zucca and Alessio Sollima for their valuable assistance with patients’ coordination, during the evaluations and exercise interventions.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milan, Via Colombo 71, 20133, Milan, Italy

    Massimo Venturelli, Emiliano Cè, Eloisa Limonta, Arsenio Veicsteinas & Fabio Esposito

  2. Department of Neurological and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy

    Federico Schena

  3. ASP Pio Albergo Trivulzio, Division of Cardiology, University of Milan, Milan, Italy

    Barbara Caimi & Stefano Carugo

  4. Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy

    Stefano Carugo

  5. Center of Sport Medicine, Don Gnocchi Foundation, Milan, Italy

    Arsenio Veicsteinas

Authors
  1. Massimo Venturelli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Emiliano Cè
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Eloisa Limonta
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Federico Schena
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Barbara Caimi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Stefano Carugo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Arsenio Veicsteinas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Fabio Esposito
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Fabio Esposito.

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Venturelli, M., Cè, E., Limonta, E. et al. Effects of endurance, circuit, and relaxing training on cardiovascular risk factors in hypertensive elderly patients. AGE 37, 101 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-015-9835-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-015-9835-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation