Abstract
In order to study the characteristics and transport path of PM2.5 in the subway station office, three different types of typical subway station were selected for sampling and analysis. The PM2.5 of mechanical air duct and VAC (ventilation and air conditioning system) were tested simultaneously. Both the particulate matter in the station office and VAC exhibit highly enriched characteristics of metal elements. The mass balance equation with elemental Fe as the tracer element is established firstly in subway station, and the transport path of PM2.5 in the work area is revealed: if the work area is obviously under positive pressure compared to the station hall, metal-enriched fine particles come from the VAC system; otherwise, the particles come both from the VAC system and air infiltration from the station hall. The contribution of air infiltration to metal-enriched fine particles can reach 50%. Finally, following an investigation into the source of fine particles in the office, the measures to improve air quality are proposed and validated.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of data and materials
The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and its supplementary materials.
References
Allen RW, Adar SD, Avol E, Cohen M, Curl CL, Larson T, Liu LS (2012) Modeling the Residential infiltration of outdoor PM2.5 in the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis and air pollution (MESA Air). Environ Health Perspect 120(6):824–830. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104447
Bong C-K, Kim Y-G, Song K-Y, Oh J-E, Kim Y-K (2013) Study on air quality characteristics of subway stations using sensor module. Int J Environ Sci Dev 4(2):225–229. https://doi.org/10.7763/ijesd.2013.v4.340
Branǐ M (2006) The contribution of ambient sources to particulate pollution in spaces and trains of the Prague underground transport system. Atmos Environ 40(2):348–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.09.060
Burnett RT, Arden Pope C, Ezzati M, Olives C, Lim SS, Mehta S, Shin HH, Singh G, Hubbell B, Brauer M, Ross Anderson H, Smith KR, Balmes JR, Bruce NG, Kan H, Laden F, Prüss-Ustün A, Turner MC, Gapstur SM, Ryan Diver W, Cohen A (2014) An integrated risk function for estimating the global burden of disease attributable to ambient fine particulate matter exposure. Environ Health Perspect 122(4):397–403. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307049
Cartenì A, Cascetta F, Campana S (2015) Underground and ground-level particulate matter concentrations in an Italian metro system. Atmos Environ 101:328–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.11.030
Cartledge BT, Majestic BJ (2015) Metal concentrations and soluble iron speciation in fine particulate matter from light rail activity in the Denver-Metropolitan area. Atmos Pollut Res 6(3):495–502. https://doi.org/10.5094/APR.2015.055
Chen C, Zhao B, Weschler CJ (2012) Indoor exposure to “outdoor PM10”: assessing its influence on the relationship between PM10 and short-term mortality in U.S. cities. Epidemiology 23(6):870–878. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e31826b800e
Cheng YH, Lin YL, Liu CC (2008) Levels of PM10 and PM2.5 in Taipei rapid transit system. Atmos Environ 42(31):7242–7249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.07.011
Colombi C, Angius S, Gianelle V, Lazzarini M (2013) Particulate matter concentrations, physical characteristics and elemental composition in the Milan underground transport system. Atmos Environ 70:166–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.01.035
Delfino RJ, Sioutas C, Malik S (2005) Potential role of ultrafine particles in associations between airborne particle mass and cardiovascular health. Environ Health Perspect 113(8):934–946. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.7938
Font O, Moreno T, Querol X, Martins V, Sánchez Rodas D, de Miguel E, Capdevila M (2019) Origin and speciation of major and trace PM elements in the Barcelona subway system. Transp Res Part d: Transp Environ 72(April):17–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2019.03.007
Frampton MW, Ghio AJ, Samet JM, Carson JL, Carter JD, Devlin RB (1999) Effects of aqueous extracts of PM10 filters from the Utah Valley on human airway epithelial cells. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 277(5):L960–L967. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplung.1999.277.5.l960
Frattolillo A, Stabile L, Dell’Isola M (2021) Natural ventilation measurements in a multi-room dwelling: critical aspects and comparability of pressurization and tracer gas decay tests. J Build Eng 42:102478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102478
Guo L, Hu Y, Hu Q, Lin J, Li C, Chen J, Li L, Fu H (2014) Characteristics and chemical compositions of particulate matter collected at the selected metro stations of Shanghai, China. Sci Total Environ 496:443–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.07.055
Huang S, Chen P, Hu K, Qiu Y, Feng W, Ren Z, Wang X, Huang T, Wu D (2021) Characteristics and source identification of fine particles in the Nanchang subway. China Build Environ 199(April):107925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.107925
Ji W, Li H, Zhao B, Deng F (2018) Tracer element for indoor PM2.5 in China migrated from outdoor. Atmos Environ 176:171–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.12.034
Ji W, Li X, Wang C (2021a) Composition and exposure characteristics of PM2.5 on subway platforms and estimates of exposure reduction by protective masks. Environ Res 197(October 2020):111042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.111042
Ji W, Liu Z, Liu C, Wang C, Li X (2021b) Characteristics of fine particulate matter and volatile organic compounds in subway station offices in China. Build Environ 188(October 2020):107502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.107502
Johansson C, Johansson PÅ (2002) Particulate matter in the underground of Stockholm. Adv Air Pollut 11:541–549
Jung HJ, Kim BW, Ryu JY, Maskey S, Kim JC, Sohn J, Ro CU (2010) Source identification of particulate matter collected at underground subway stations in Seoul, Korea using quantitative single-particle analysis. Atmos Environ 44(19):2287–2293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.04.003
Kam W, Cheung K, Daher N, Sioutas C (2011) Particulate matter (PM) concentrations in underground and ground-level rail systems of the Los Angeles Metro. Atmos Environ 45(8):1506–1516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.12.049
Kamani H, Hoseini M, Seyedsalehi M, Mahdavi Y, Jaafari J, Safari GH (2014) Concentration and characterization of airborne particles in Tehran’s subway system. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21(12):7319–7328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2659-4
Karlsson HL, Nilsson L, Moller L (2005) Subway particles are more genotoxic than street particles and induce oxidative stress in cultured human lung cells. Chem Res Toxicol 18(1):19–23. https://doi.org/10.1021/tx049723c
Kim KY, Kim YS, Roh YM, Lee CM, Kim CN (2008) Spatial distribution of particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) in Seoul Metropolitan Subway stations. J Hazard Mater 154(1–3):440–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.10.042
Kyllönen K, Karlsson V, Ruoho-Airola T (2009) Trace element deposition and trends during a ten year period in Finland. Sci Total Environ 407(7):2260–2269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.11.045
Lee Y, Lee YC, Kim T, Choi JS, Park D (2018) Sources and characteristics of particulate matter in subway tunnels in Seoul, Korea. Int J Environ Res Public Health 15(11):1–17. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112534
Lim JM, Jeong JH, Jung BW, Lee JH, Moon JH, Chung YS, Kim K-H (2011) Characteristics of the elemental compositions of particulate matter at a subway platform using INAA and XRF. Proc Radiochem 1(1):313–318. https://doi.org/10.1524/rcpr.2011.0054
Lu S, Liu D, Zhang W, Liu P, Fei Y, Gu Y, Wu M, Yu S, Yonemochi S, Wang X, Wang Q (2015) Physico-chemical characterization of PM2.5 in the microenvironment of Shanghai subway. Atmos Res 153:543–552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2014.10.006
Martins V, Moreno T, Mendes L, Eleftheriadis K, Diapouli E, Alves CA, Duarte M, de Miguel E, Capdevila M, Querol X, Minguillón MC (2016) Factors controlling air quality in different European subway systems. Environ Res 146:35–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2015.12.007
Mugica-Álvarez V, Figueroa-Lara J, Romero-Romo M, Sepúlvea-Sánchez J, López-Moreno T (2012) Concentrations and properties of airborne particles in the Mexico City subway system. Atmos Environ 49:284–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.11.038
Ngoc LTN, Lee Y, Chun HS, Moon JY, Choi JS, Park D, Lee YC (2020) Correlation of α/γ-Fe2O3 nanoparticles with the toxicity of particulate matter originating from subway tunnels in Seoul stations Korea. J Hazard Mater 382(September 2019):121175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121175
Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Gómez-Perales JE, Colvile RN (2007) Levels of particulate air pollution, its elemental composition, determinants and health effects in metro systems. Atmos Environ 41(37):7995–8006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.08.002
Pan S, Du S, Wang X, Zhang X, Xia L, Liu J, Pei F, Wei Y (2019) Analysis and interpretation of the particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) concentrations at the subway stations in Beijing China. Sustain Cities Soc 45(November 2018):366–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2018.11.020
Passi A, Nagendra SMS, Maiya MP (2021a) Characteristics of indoor air quality in underground metro stations: a critical review. Build Environ 198(April):107907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.107907
Passi A, Shiva Nagendra SM, Maiya MP (2021b) Assessment of exposure to airborne aerosol and bio-aerosol particles and their deposition in the respiratory tract of subway metro passengers and workers. Atmos Pollut Res 12(11):101218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2021.101218
Pope CA, Dockery DW (2006) Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: lines that connect. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 56(6):709–742. https://doi.org/10.1080/10473289.2006.10464485
Pope CA, Burnett RT, Thurston GD, Thun MJ, Calle EE, Krewski D, Godleski JJ (2004) Cardiovascular mortality and long-term exposure to particulate air pollution: epidemiological evidence of general pathophysiological pathways of disease. Circulation 109(1):71–77. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000108927.80044.7F
Querol X, Moreno T, Karanasiou A, Reche C, Alastuey A, Viana M, Font O, Gil J, De Miguel E, Capdevila M (2012) Variability of levels and composition of PM 10 and PM 2.5 in the Barcelona metro system. Atmos Chemi Phys 12(11):5055–5076. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-12-5055-2012
Remion G, Moujalled B, El Mankibi M (2021) Dynamic measurement of the airflow rate in a two-zones dwelling, from the CO2 tracer gas-decay method using the Kalman filter. Build Environ 188:107493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.107493
Riley WJ, McKone TE, Lai ACK, Nazaroff WW (2002) Indoor particulate matter of outdoor origin: importance of size-dependent removal mechanisms. Environ Sci Technol 36(2):200–207. https://doi.org/10.1021/es010723y
Salma I, Weidinger T, Maenhaut W (2007) Time-resolved mass concentration, composition and sources of aerosol particles in a metropolitan underground railway station. Atmos Environ 41(37):8391–8405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.06.017
Seaton A, Cherrie J, Dennekamp M, Donaldson K, Hurley JF, Tran CL (2005) The London Underground: dust and hazards to health. Occup Environ Med 62(6):355–362. https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.2004.014332
Shair FH, Heitner KL (1974) Theoretical model for relating indoor pollutant concentrations to those outside. Environ Sci Technol 8(5):444–451. https://doi.org/10.1021/es60090a006
Smith JD, Barratt BM, Fuller GW, Kelly FJ, Loxham M, Nicolosi E, Priestman M, Tremper AH, Green DC (2020) PM2.5 on the London Underground. Environ Int 134(November 2019):105188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105188
Taylor SR (1964) Abundance of chemical elements in the continental crust: a new table. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 28(8):1273–1285. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(64)90129-2
Taylor SR, Mclennan SM (1995) The geochemical the continental evolution crust. Rev Mineral Geochem 33(2):241–265
Zhang X, Xu Y, Su J (2020) Temporal and spatial characteristics of particulate matters in metro stations of Shanghai. China Build Environ 179(February):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.106956
Zhang M, Shao L, Jones T, Feng X, Ge S, Yang C-X, Cao Y, BéruBé K, Zhang D (2022) Atmospheric iron particles in PM2.5 from a subway station, Beijing, China. Atmos Environ 283:119175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2022.119175
Funding
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China [Grant No. 51878373].
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Chunwang Wang and Xiaofeng Li. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Chunwang Wang, and all authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Declarations
Ethical approval.
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
All authors approved the final manuscript and the submission to this journal.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, C., Li, X. Characteristics, sources, and improvement measures regarding fine particulate matter in subway station office and the VAC system. Environ Sci Pollut Res (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-33357-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-33357-z