Abstract
Graphite/C-doped TiO2 nanocomposite was synthesized at room temperature using a simple, impressive, and indirect sonication (20 kHz) by the cup horn system. Tetrabutyltitanate as the precursor of titanium and graphite (G) as the carbon source was used in the preparation of nanocomposite as a photocatalyst. The molar ratio of G/TiO2 as a key parameter was investigated in the synthesis of G/C-doped TiO2. The obtained materials were widely characterized using XRD, SEM, TEM, FTIR, XPS, and UV–Vis diffuse reflectance techniques. The UV–Vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy results showed that the edge of light absorption of nanocomposite was distinctly red-shifted to the visible area via carbon doping. The XPS outcomes acknowledged the existence of the C, Ti, and O in the photocatalyst. The composite showed an enhancement in the dissociation efficiency of photoinduced charge carriers through the doping process. The photocatalytic activity of the synthesized nanocomposite was checked with diclofenac (DCF) as a pharmaceutical contaminant. The results displayed that G/C-doped TiO2 represented better photocatalytic performance for DCF than TiO2. This was due to the excellent crystallization, intense absorption of visible light, and the impressive separation of photoinduced charge carriers. Various active species such as •OH, •O2¯, h+, and H2O2 play a role in the degradation of DFC. Therefore, different scavengers were used and the role of each one in degradation was investigated. According to the obtained results, •O2¯ radical showed a major role in the photocatalytic process. This work not only proposes a deep insight into the photosensitization-like mechanism by using G-based materials but also develops new photocatalysts for the removal of emerging organic pollutants from waters using sunlight as available cheap energy.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this manuscript.
References
Adyani SM, Ghorbani M (2018) A comparative study of physicochemical and photocatalytic properties of visible light responsive Fe, Gd, and P single and tri-doped TiO2 nanomaterials. J Rare Earths 36:72–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jre.2017.06.012
Aghababaei N, Abdouss M, Hosseini-Monfared H, Ghanbari F (2023a) Enhanced photo-degradation of diclofenac using a new and effective composite (O-g-C3N4/TiO2/α-Fe2O3): degradation pathway, toxicity evaluation and application for real matrix. J Environ Chem Eng 11:110477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2023.110477
Aghababaei N, Abdouss M, Hosseini-Monfared H, Ghanbari F (2023b) Photocatalytic degradation of diclofenac using a novel double Z-scheme catalyst (O-g-C3N4/ZnO/TiO2@halloysite nanotubes): degradation mechanism, identification of by-products and environmental implementation. J Water Process Eng 53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2023.103702
Amalraj Appavoo I, Hu J, Huang Y et al (2014) Response surface modeling of carbamazepine (CBZ) removal by graphene-P25 nanocomposites/UVA process using central composite design. Water Res 57:270–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2014.03.007
Arai H, Arai M, Sakumoto A (1986) Exhaustive degradation of humic acid in water by simultaneous application of radiation and ozone. Water Res 20:885–891. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(86)90177-6
Baek M-H, Jung W-C, Yoon J-W et al (2013) Preparation, characterization and photocatalytic activity evaluation of micro- and mesoporous TiO2/spherical activated carbon. J Ind Eng Chem 19:469–477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2012.08.026
Bang JH, Suslick KS (2010) Applications of ultrasound to the synthesis of nanostructured materials. Adv Mater 22:1039–1059. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.200904093
Bhadra BN, Ahmed I, Kim S, Jhung SH (2016a) Adsorptive removal of ibuprofen and diclofenac from water using metal-organic framework-derived porous carbon. Chem Eng J. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2016.12.127
Bhadra BN, Seo PW, Jhung SH (2016b) Adsorption of diclofenac sodium from water using oxidized activated carbon. Chem Eng J 301:27–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2016.04.143
Binas V, Venieri D, Kotzias D, Kiriakidis G (2017) Modified TiO2 based photocatalysts for improved air and health quality. J Mater 3:3–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmat.2016.11.002
Boukhatem H, Khalaf H, Djouadi L et al (2017) Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering under NUV – Vis irradiation . Operational parameters, kinetics and mechanism. 5:5636–5644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2017.10.054
Byranvand MM, Kharat AN, Fatholahi L, Beiranvand ZM (2013) A review on synthesis of nano-TiO2 via different methods. J Nanostruct 3:1–9. https://doi.org/10.7508/JNS.2013.01.001
Chen Q, Liu H, Xin Y, Cheng X (2013) TiO2 nanobelts – Effect of calcination temperature on optical, photoelectrochemical and photocatalytic properties. Electrochim Acta 111:284–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2013.08.049
Cheng X, Yu X, Xing Z (2012) Characterization and mechanism analysis of Mo–N-co-doped TiO2 nano-photocatalyst and its enhanced visible activity. J Colloid Interface Sci 372:1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2011.11.071
Cheng X, Liu H, Chen Q et al (2013) Preparation and characterization of palladium nano-crystallite decorated TiO2 nano-tubes photoelectrode and its enhanced photocatalytic efficiency for degradation of diclofenac. J Hazard Mater 254–255:141–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.03.062
Colmenares QJC (2013) Ultrasound and photochemical procedures for nanocatalysts preparation: application in photocatalytic biomass valorization. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 13:4787–4798. https://doi.org/10.1166/jnn.2013.7567
Colmenares JC, Aramendía MA, Marinas A et al (2006) Synthesis, characterization and photocatalytic activity of different metal-doped titania systems. Appl Catal A Gen 306:120–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcata.2006.03.046
Coulter JB, Birnie DP (2018) Assessing Tauc plot slope quantification: ZnO thin films as a model system. Phys Status Solidi Basic Res 255:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/pssb.201700393
Di Credico B, Bellobono IR, D’Arienzo M et al (2015) Efficacy of the reactive oxygen species generated by immobilized TiO2 in the photocatalytic degradation of diclofenac. Int J Photoenergy 2015. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/919217
da Silva AL, Trindade FJ, Lou DJ et al (2022) Synthesis of TiO2 microspheres by ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and photocatalytic activity evaluation. Ceram Int 48:9739–9745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2021.12.175
De Luis AM, Lombraña JI, Menéndez A, Sanz J (2011) Analysis of the toxicity of phenol solutions treated with H2O2/UV and H2O2/Fe oxidative systems. Ind Eng Chem Res 50:1928–1937. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie101435u
Di Valentin C, Pacchioni G, Selloni A (2005) Theory of carbon doping of titanium dioxide. Chem Mater 17:6656–6665. https://doi.org/10.1021/cm051921h
Di J, Li S, Zhao Z et al (2015) Biomimetic CNT@TiO2 composite with enhanced photocatalytic properties. Chem Eng J 281:60–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2015.06.067
Djellabi R, Yang B, Wang Y et al (2019a) Carbonaceous biomass-titania composites with Ti–O–C bonding bridge for efficient photocatalytic reduction of Cr(VI) under narrow visible light. Chem Eng J 366:172–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.02.035
Djellabi R, Yang B, Xiao K et al (2019b) Unravelling the mechanistic role of Ti–O–C bonding bridge at titania/lignocellulosic biomass interface for Cr(VI) photoreduction under visible light. J Colloid Interface Sci 553:409–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2019.06.052
Dong X, Sun Z, Zhang X et al (2018) Synthesis and enhanced solar light photocatalytic activity of a C/N Co-doped TiO2/diatomite composite with exposed (001) facets. Aust J Chem 71:315–324. https://doi.org/10.1071/CH17544
Eddy DR, Permana MD, Sakti LK et al (2023) Heterophase polymorph of TiO2 (anatase, rutile, brookite, TiO2 (B)) for efficient photocatalyst: fabrication and activity. Nanomaterials 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano13040704
Etacheri V, Michlits G, Seery MK et al (2013) A highly efficient TiO2-xCx nano-heterojunction photocatalyst for visible light induced antibacterial applications. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 5:1663–1672. https://doi.org/10.1021/am302676a
Fabbri D, López-Muñoz MJ, Daniele A et al (2019) Photocatalytic abatement of emerging pollutants in pure water and wastewater effluent by TiO2 and Ce-ZnO: degradation kinetics and assessment of transformation products. Photochem Photobiol Sci 18:845–852. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8pp00311d
Gao P, Li A, Sun DD, Ng WJ (2014) Effects of various TiO2 nanostructures and graphene oxide on photocatalytic activity of TiO2. J Hazard Mater 279:96–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.06.061
García-Araya JF, Beltrán FJ, Aguinaco A (2010) Diclofenac removal from water by ozone and photolytic TiO2 catalysed processes. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 85:798–804. https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.2363
Gil A, García AM, Fernández M et al (2017) Effect of dopants on the structure of titanium oxide used as a photocatalyst for the removal of emergent contaminants. J Ind Eng Chem 53:183–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2017.04.024
González-Reyes L, Hernández-Pérez I, Díaz-Barriga Arceo L et al (2010) Temperature effects during Ostwald ripening on structural and bandgap properties of TiO2 nanoparticles prepared by sonochemical synthesis. Mater Sci Eng B 175:9–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mseb.2010.06.004
Güler Ö, Güler SH, Selen V et al (2016) Production of graphene layer by liquid-phase exfoliation with low sonication power and sonication time from synthesized expanded graphite. Fuller Nanotub Carbon Nanostructures 24:123–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/1536383X.2015.1114472
Gümüş D, Akbal F (2011) Photocatalytic degradation of textile dye and wastewater. Water, Air, Soil Pollut 216:117–124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-010-0520-z
He Z, Que W, He Y (2014) Enhanced photocatalytic performance of sensitized mesoporous TiO2 nanoparticles by carbon mesostructures. RSC Adv 4:3332–3339. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3RA46389C
Huang Q, Tian S, Zeng D et al (2013a) Enhanced photocatalytic activity of chemically bonded TiO2 /graphene composites based on the effective interfacial charge transfer through the C-Ti bond. ACS Catal 3:1477–1485. https://doi.org/10.1021/cs400080w
Huang T, Mao S, Yu J et al (2013b) Effects of N and F doping on structure and photocatalytic properties of anatase TiO2 nanoparticles. RSC Adv 3:16657. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ra42600a
Huang X, Wang L, Zhou J, Gao N (2014) Photocatalytic decomposition of bromate ion by the UV/P25-graphene processes. Water Res 57:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2014.02.042
Huang GX, Wang CY, Yang CW et al (2017) Degradation of bisphenol a by peroxymonosulfate catalytically activated with Mn1.8Fe1.2O4 nanospheres: synergism between Mn and Fe. Environ Sci Technol 51:12611–12618. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b03007
In S, Kean AH, Orlov A et al (2009) A versatile new method for synthesis and deposition of doped, visible light-activated TiO2 thin films. Energy Environ Sci 2:1277. https://doi.org/10.1039/b915060a
Inagaki M (2012) Carbon coating for enhancing the functionalities of materials. Carbon N Y 50:3247–3266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2011.11.045
Jia J, Li D, Wan J, Yu X (2016) Characterization and mechanism analysis of graphite/C-doped TiO2 composite for enhanced photocatalytic performance. J Ind Eng Chem 33:162–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2015.09.030
Keen OS, Thurman EM, Ferrer I et al (2013) Dimer formation during UV photolysis of diclofenac. Chemosphere 93:1948–1956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.06.079
Khetan SK, Collins TJ (2007) Human pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment: a challenge to green chemisty. Chem Rev 107:2319–2364. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr020441w
Kim K (1990) Structure and composition requirements for deoxygenation, dehydration, and ketonization reactions of carboxylic acids on TiO2(001) single-crystal surfaces. J Catal 125:353–375. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9517(90)90309-8
Kohtani S, Kudo A, Sakata T (1993) Spectral sensitization of a TiO2 semiconductor electrode by CdS microcrystals and its photoelectrochemical properties. Chem Phys Lett 206:166–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2614(93)85535-V
Kongkanand A, Kama PV (2007) Electron storage in single wall carbon semiconductor – SWCNT suspensions. ACS Nano 1:13–21. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn700036f
Kumar A (2018) Different methods used for the synthesis of TiO2 based nanomaterials: a review. Am J Nano Res Appl 6:1. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.nano.20180601.11
Lara-Pérez C, Leyva E, Zermeño B et al (2020) Photocatalytic degradation of diclofenac sodium salt: adsorption and reaction kinetic studies. Environ Earth Sci 79:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-020-09017-z
Lee S, Lee Y, Kim DH, Moon JH (2013) Carbon-deposited TiO2 3D inverse opal photocatalysts: visible-light photocatalytic activity and enhanced activity in a viscous solution. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 5:12526–12532. https://doi.org/10.1021/am403820e
Li G, Li L, Boerio-Goates J, Woodfield BF (2005) High purity anatase TiO2 nanocrystals: near room-temperature synthesis, grain growth kinetics, and surface hydration chemistry. J Am Chem Soc 127:8659–8666. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja050517g
Li D, Cheng X, Yu X, Xing Z (2015a) Preparation and characterization of TiO2 -based nanosheets for photocatalytic degradation of acetylsalicylic acid: Influence of calcination temperature. Chem Eng J 279:994–1003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2015.05.102
Li D, Xing Z, Yu X, Cheng X (2015b) One-step hydrothermal synthesis of C-N-S-tridoped TiO2-based nanosheets photoelectrode for enhanced photoelectrocatalytic performance and mechanism. Electrochim Acta 170:182–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.04.148
Li D, Jia J, Zhang Y et al (2016a) Preparation and characterization of nano-graphite/TiO2 composite photoelectrode for photoelectrocatalytic degradation of hazardous pollutant. J Hazard Mater 315:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.04.053
Li J, Xu X, Liu X et al (2016b) Sn doped TiO2 nanotube with oxygen vacancy for highly efficient visible light photocatalysis. J Alloys Compd 679:454–462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2016.04.080
Li Q, Guan Z, Wu D et al (2017) Z-scheme BiOCl-Au-CdS heterostructure with enhanced sunlight-driven photocatalytic activity in degrading water dyes and antibiotics. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 5:6958–6968. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b01157
Li J, Pham AN, Dai R et al (2020a) Recent advances in Cu-Fenton systems for the treatment of industrial wastewaters: role of Cu complexes and Cu composites. J Hazard Mater 392:122261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122261
Li W, Liang R, Zhou NY, Pan Z (2020b) Carbon black-doped anatase TiO2 nanorods for solar light-induced photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue. ACS Omega 5:10042–10051. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.0c00504
Liu L, Chen X (2014) Titanium dioxide nanomaterials: self-structural modifications. Chem Rev 114:9890–9918. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr400624r
Liu R, Li W (2018) High-thermal-stability and high-thermal-conductivity Ti3C2Tx MXene/poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) composites. ACS Omega 3:2609–2617. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.7b02001
Liu G, Han C, Pelaez M et al (2013) Enhanced visible light photocatalytic activity of CN-codoped TiO2 films for the degradation of microcystin-LR. J Mol Catal A Chem 372:58–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molcata.2013.02.006
Liu W, Li Y, Liu F et al (2019) Visible-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of diclofenac by carbon quantum dots modified porous g-C3N4: mechanisms, degradation pathway and DFT calculation. Water Res 151:8–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.11.084
Makal P, Das D (2018) Self-doped TiO2 nanowires in TiO2 -B single phase, TiO2 -B/anatase and TiO2 -anatase/rutile heterojunctions demonstrating individual superiority in photocatalytic activity under visible and UV light. Appl Surf Sci 455:1106–1115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.06.055
Malato S, Fernández-Ibáñez P, Maldonado MI et al (2009) Decontamination and disinfection of water by solar photocatalysis: recent overview and trends. Catal Today 147:1–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2009.06.018
Mali SS, Betty CA, Bhosale PN, Patil PS (2012) Synthesis, characterization of hydrothermally grown MWCNT–TiO2 photoelectrodes and their visible light absorption properties. ECS J Solid State Sci Technol 1:M15–M23. https://doi.org/10.1149/2.004202jss
Mason TJ (2003) Sonochemistry and sonoprocessing: the link, the trends and (probably) the future. Ultrason Sonochem 10:175–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1350-4177(03)00086-5
McDevitt NT, Baun WL (1964) Infrared absorption study of metal oxides in the low frequency region (700–240 cm−1). Spectrochim Acta 20:799–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/0371-1951(64)80079-5
Mergbi M, Aboagye D, Contreras S et al (2023) Fast g-C3N4 sonocoated activated carbon for enhanced solar photocatalytic oxidation of organic pollutants through Adsorb & Shuttle process. Ultrason Sonochem 99:106550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2023.106550
Meroni D, Djellabi R, Ashokkumar M et al (2022) Sonoprocessing : from concepts to large-scale reactors. Chem Rev 122:3219–3258. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00438
Michael I, Achilleos A, Lambropoulou D et al (2014) Proposed transformation pathway and evolution profile of diclofenac and ibuprofen transformation products during (sono)photocatalysis. Appl Catal B Environ 147:1015–1027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2013.10.035
Moctezuma E, Leyva E, Lara-Pérez C et al (2020) TiO2 photocatalytic degradation of diclofenac: intermediates and total reaction mechanism. Top Catal 63:601–615. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11244-020-01262-7
Mohamed RM, Mkhalid IA (2015) Visible light photocatalytic degradation of cyanide using Au-TiO2/multi-walled carbon nanotube nanocomposites. J Ind Eng Chem 22:390–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2014.07.037
Mortazavi S, NorouziFard PSA (2017) Quantitative Assessment of Concentration of Pharmaceutical Pollutants (Naproxen, Diclofenac, and Celecoxib) in the Karaj River, Alborz Province, Iran. J Rafsanjan Univ Med Sci 16:605–622
Neville EM, Mattle MJ, Loughrey D et al (2012) Carbon-doped TiO2 and carbon, tungsten-codoped TiO2 through Sol-Gel processes in the presence of melamine borate: reflections through photocatalysis. J Phys Chem C 116:16511–16521. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp303645p
Nguyen NT, Nguyen VA (2020) Synthesis, characterization, and photocatalytic activity of ZnO nanomaterials prepared by a green, nonchemical route. J Nanomater 2020:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/1768371
Ojeda M, Chen B, Leung DYC et al (2017) A hydrogel template synthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles for aluminium-ion batteries. Energy Procedia 105:3997–4002. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.836
Ong W-J, Tan L-L, Chai S-P et al (2014) Highly reactive 001 facets of TiO2-based composites: synthesis, view article online 10.1039/C3NR04655A Formation mechanism and characterizations. Nanoscale 6:1946–2008. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3NR04655A.This
Palmisano G, Loddo V, El NHH et al (2009) Graphite-supported TiO2 for 4-nitrophenol degradation in a photoelectrocatalytic reactor. Chem Eng J 155:339–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2009.07.002
Panjiar H, Gakkhar RP, Daniel BSS (2015) Strain-free graphite nanoparticle synthesis by mechanical milling. Powder Technol 275:25–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2015.01.056
Prahas D, Kartika Y, Indraswati N, Ismadji S (2008) Activated carbon from jackfruit peel waste by H3PO4 chemical activation: pore structure and surface chemistry characterization. Chem Eng J 140:32–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2007.08.032
Qamar M, Muneer M (2009) A comparative photocatalytic activity of titanium dioxide and zinc oxide by investigating the degradation of vanillin. Desalination 249:535–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2009.01.022
Rajeshkumar R, Udhayabanu V, Srinivasan A, Ravi KR (2017) Microstructural evolution in ultrafine grained Al-graphite composite synthesized via combined use of ultrasonic treatment and friction stir processing. J Alloys Compd 726:358–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.07.280
Rashid J, Karim S, Kumar R et al (2020) A facile synthesis of bismuth oxychloride-graphene oxide composite for visible light photocatalysis of aqueous diclofenac sodium. Sci Rep 10:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-71139-y
Rey A, Mena E, Chávez AM et al (2015) Influence of structural properties on the activity of WO3 catalysts for visible light photocatalytic ozonation. Chem Eng Sci 126:80–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2014.12.016
Rozman D, Hrkal Z, Eckhardt P et al (2015) Pharmaceuticals in groundwaters: a case study of the psychiatric hospital at Horní Beřkovice, Czech Republic. Environ Earth Sci 73:3775–3784. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-014-3663-1
Safarifard V, Morsali A (2012) Sonochemical syntheses of a nano-sized copper(II) supramolecule as a precursor for the synthesis of copper(II) oxide nanoparticles. Ultrason Sonochem 19:823–829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2011.12.013
Salaeh S, Juretic Perisic D, Biosic M et al (2016) Diclofenac removal by simulated solar assisted photocatalysis using TiO2-based zeolite catalyst; mechanisms, pathways and environmental aspects. Chem Eng J 304:289–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2016.06.083
Sander JRG, Zeiger BW, Suslick KS (2014) Sonocrystallization and sonofragmentation. Ultrason Sonochem 21:1908–1915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2014.02.005
Sathishkumar P, Mohan K, Meena RAA et al (2021) Hazardous impact of diclofenac on mammalian system: Mitigation strategy through green remediation approach. J Hazard Mater 419:126135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126135
Schulze-Hennings U, Brückner I, Gebhardt W et al (2017) Durability of a coating containing titanium dioxide for the photocatalytic degradation of diclofenac in water with UV-A irradiation. Water Environ J 31:508–514. https://doi.org/10.1111/wej.12272
Shchukin DG, Skorb E, Belova V, Möhwald H (2011) Ultrasonic cavitation at solid surfaces. Adv Mater 23:1922–1934. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201004494
Shen J, Yan B, Shi M et al (2011a) One step hydrothermal synthesis of TiO2-reduced graphene oxide sheets. J Mater Chem 21:3415. https://doi.org/10.1039/c0jm03542d
Shen Y, Zhou P, Sun QQ et al (2011b) Optical investigation of reduced graphene oxide by spectroscopic ellipsometry and the band-gap tuning. Appl Phys Lett 99:2011–2014. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3646908
Sibu CP, Kumar SR, Mukundan P, Warrier KGK (2002) Structural modifications and associated properties of lanthanum oxide doped sol−gel nanosized titanium oxide. Chem Mater 14:2876–2881. https://doi.org/10.1021/cm010966p
Tauc J, Grigorovici R, Vancu A (1966) Optical properties and electronic structure of amorphous germanium. Phys Status Solidi 15:627–637. https://doi.org/10.1002/pssb.19660150224
Teh CY, Wu TY, Juan JC (2015) Facile sonochemical synthesis of N, Cl-codoped TiO2: synthesis effects, mechanism and photocatalytic performance. Catal Today 256:365–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2015.02.014
Thomas RT, Abdul Rasheed P, Sandhyarani N (2014) Synthesis of nanotitania decorated few-layer graphene for enhanced visible light driven photocatalysis. J Colloid Interface Sci 428:214–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2014.04.054
Tiple A, Sinhmar PS, Gogate PR (2021) Improved direct synthesis of TiO2 catalyst using sonication and its application for the desulfurization of thiophene. Ultrason Sonochem 73:105547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2021.105547
Tseng WJ, Chao P-S (2013) Synthesis and photocatalysis of TiO2 hollow spheres by a facile template-implantation route. Ceram Int 39:3779–3787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2012.10.217
Ullah K, Da MZ, Ye S et al (2014) Synthesis and characterization of novel PbS-graphene/TiO2 composite with enhanced photocatalytic activity. J Ind Eng Chem 20:1035–1042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2013.06.040
Velempini T, Prabakaran E, Pillay K (2021) Recent developments in the use of metal oxides for photocatalytic degradation of pharmaceutical pollutants in water—a review. Mater Today Chem 19:100380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtchem.2020.100380
Wang Y, Shi R, Lin J, Zhu Y (2010) Significant photocatalytic enhancement in methylene blue degradation of TiO2 photocatalysts via graphene-like carbon in situ hybridization. Appl Catal B Environ 100:179–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2010.07.028
Wang DH, Jia L, Wu XL et al (2012a) One-step hydrothermal synthesis of N-doped TiO2/C nanocomposites with high visible light photocatalytic activity. Nanoscale 4:576–584. https://doi.org/10.1039/c1nr11353d
Wang X-K, Wang C, Zhang D (2012b) Sonochemical synthesis and characterization of Cl–N-codoped TiO2 nanocrystallites. Mater Lett 72:12–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2011.12.067
Wang Y, Wang Q, Zhan X et al (2013) Visible light driven type II heterostructures and their enhanced photocatalysis properties: a review. Nanoscale 5:8326–8339. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3nr01577g
Woan K, Pyrgiotakis G, Sigmund W (2009) Photocatalytic carbon-nanotube-TiO2 composites. Adv Mater 21:2233–2239. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.200802738
Xu Z, Yu J (2011) Visible-light-induced photoelectrochemical behaviors of Fe-modified TiO2 nanotube arrays. Nanoscale 3:3138. https://doi.org/10.1039/c1nr10282f
Yang X, Cao C, Erickson L et al (2009) Photo-catalytic degradation of Rhodamine B on C-, S-, N-, and Fe-doped TiO2 under visible-light irradiation. Appl Catal B Environ 91:657–662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2009.07.006
Yi C, Liao Q, Deng W et al (2019) The preparation of amorphous TiO2 doped with cationic S and its application to the degradation of DCFs under visible light irradiation. Sci Total Environ 684:527–536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.05.338
Yu J, Dai G, Xiang Q, Jaroniec M (2011) Fabrication and enhanced visible-light photocatalytic activity of carbon self-doped TiO2 sheets with exposed 001 facets. J Mater Chem 21:1049–1057. https://doi.org/10.1039/C0JM02217A
Yu J, Li Q, Liu S, Jaroniec M (2013) Ionic-liquid-assisted synthesis of uniform fluorinated B/C-codoped TiO2 nanocrystals and their enhanced visible-light photocatalytic activity. Chem - A Eur J 19:2433–2441. https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.201202778
Yu X, Zhang Y, Cheng X (2014) Preparation and photoelectrochemical performance of expanded graphite/TiO2 composite. Electrochim Acta 137:668–675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2014.06.027
Zaka A, Ibrahim TH, Khamis M (2021) Removal of selected non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs from wastewater using reduced graphene oxide magnetite. Desalin Water Treat 212:401–414. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2021.26686
Zhang L-W, Fu H-B, Zhu Y-F (2008) Efficient TiO2 photocatalysts from surface hybridization of TiO2 particles with graphite-like carbon. Adv Funct Mater 18:2180–2189. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.200701478
Zhang G, Teng F, Wang Y et al (2013) Preparation of carbon-TiO2 nanocomposites by a hydrothermal method and their enhanced photocatalytic activity. RSC Adv 3:24644–24649. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ra44950e
Zhang G, Kim G, Choi W (2014a) Visible light driven photocatalysis mediated via ligand-to-metal charge transfer (LMCT): An alternative approach to solar activation of titania. Energy Environ Sci 7:954–966. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ee43147a
Zhang Y, Zhou Z, Chen T et al (2014b) Graphene TiO2 nanocomposites with high photocatalytic activity for the degradation of sodium pentachlorophenol. J Environ Sci 26:2114–2122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2014.08.011
Zhang Y, Zhao Z, Chen J et al (2015a) C-doped hollow TiO2 spheres: in situ synthesis, controlled shell thickness, and superior visible-light photocatalytic activity. Appl Catal B Environ 165:715–722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2014.10.063
Zhou L, Wang W, Liu S et al (2006) A sonochemical route to visible-light-driven high-activity BiVO4 photocatalyst. J Mol Catal A Chem 252:120–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molcata.2006.01.052
Zhou W, Yu C, Fan Q et al (2013) Ultrasonic fabrication of N-doped TiO2 nanocrystals with mesoporous structure and enhanced visible light photocatalytic activity. Cuihua Xuebao/chinese J Catal 34:1250–1255. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1872-2067(12)60578-6
Zhu M, Wang R, Chen C et al (2017) Electrochemical study on the corrosion behavior of Ti3SiC2 in 3.5% NaCl solution. RSC Adv 7:12534–12540. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6ra26239b
Zhu X, Zhou Q, Xia Y et al (2021) Preparation and characterization of Cu-doped TiO2 nanomaterials with anatase/rutile/brookite triphasic structure and their photocatalytic activity. J Mater Sci Mater Electron 32:21511–21524. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-021-06660-5
Zhuang H-F, Lin C-J, Lai Y-K et al (2007) Some critical structure factors of titanium oxide nanotube array in its photocatalytic activity. Environ Sci Technol 41:4735–4740. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0702723
Acknowledgements
The support of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (Research and Technology) is appreciated for this work (3/48842).
Funding
Ferdowsi University of Mashhad.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Mohammad Barjasteh Moghaddam Roshtkhari: all experiments, analysis, and interpretation of results, conceptualization, methodology, investigation, formal analysis, and writing—original draft (first author). Mohammad Hassan Entezari: supervision, conceptualization, review, and editing (corresponding author).
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical approval
Hereby, the authors consciously assure that for the manuscript “Graphite/C-doped TiO2 nanocomposite synthesized by ultrasound for the degradation of DCF” the following is fulfilled: This manuscript is the author’s original work, which has not been previously published elsewhere. The paper is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere and reflects the authors’ research and analysis truthfully and completely.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Sami Rtimi
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Roshtkhari, M.B.M., Entezari, M.H. Graphite/carbon-doped TiO2 nanocomposite synthesized by ultrasound for the degradation of diclofenac. Environ Sci Pollut Res 31, 15105–15125 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-32182-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-32182-8