Abstract
The application of green synthesized nanocomposites for the prevention of environmental pollution is increasing nowadays. Here, a green composite has been synthesized by embedding MnO2 on Rauvolfia tetraphylla leaves using its leaf extract hereinafter termed as MnO2@RTL, and demonstrated for crystal violet (CV) dye removal from simulated and real wastewater. The surface properties of the material were determined by scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM–EDX), Fourier transform infrared spectra (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Brunauer-Emmet-Teller (BET) surface area, pHZPC, and zeta potential. The material exhibits a remarkable adsorption capacity of 61.162 mg/g at 328 K and pH 7. The adsorption was best fitted with Pseudo-second-order kinetic (R2 = 0.998) and a combination of Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm model (R2 = 0.994–0.999). The thermodynamic study revealed spontaneous (ΔG values = − 2.988 to − 4.978 kJ/mol) and endothermic (ΔH values = 6.830 to 11.018 kJ/mol) adsorption. After adsorption, 80% regeneration occurred with 50% methanol, and recycled up to five times. Advantageously, the material was able to remove CV dye in the presence of coexistent ions and from industrial wastewater, confirming field applicability. The adsorption capacity of the material is superior to previously reported materials. The standard deviation and relative standard deviations have been evaluated to be 0.000422–0.000667 and 0.473–0.749%, which suggests the reliability of the experiments. The exhausted material, after recycling, was pyrolyzed to overcome the disposal problem. It was established as a secondary adsorbent with 73% efficiency which makes the material win–win. The material showed antibacterial properties with Staphylococcus aureus bacteria with a zone of inhibition 5 mm.
Graphical Abstract
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Data will be made available upon reasonable request.
References
Akhavan O (2010) Thickness dependent activity of nanostructured TiO2 /α- Fe2O3 photocatalyst thin films. Appl Surf Sci 257(5):1724–1728. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2010.09.005
Akhavan O, Ghaderi E (2010) Toxicity of graphene and graphene oxide nanowalls against bacteria. ACS Nano 4(10):5731–5736. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn101390x
Akhavan O, Ghaderi E (2012) Escherichia coli bacteria reduce graphene oxide to bactericidal graphene in a self-limiting manner. Carbon 50(5):1853–1860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2011.12.035
Akhavan O, Ghaderi E, Esfandiar A (2011) Wrapping bacteria by graphene nanosheets for isolation from environment, reactivation by sonication, and inactivation by near-infrared irradiation. J Phys Chem 115(19):6279–6288. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp200686k
Akpomie KG, Conradie J (2023) Adsorption of nortriptyline and Celestine blue onto plant leaf-mediated green synthesized manganese dioxide nanoparticles. Bionanoscience 13:1308–1323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12668-023-01162-6
Alizadeh N, Shariati S, Besharati N (2017) Adsorption of crystal violet and methylene blue on azolla and fig leaves modified with magnetite iron oxide nanoparticles. Int J Environ Res 11:197–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41742-017-0019-1
Aljedaani RO, Kosa SA, Abdel Salam M (2023) Ecofriendly green synthesis of copper (II) oxide nanoparticles using Corchorus olitorus leaves (Molokhaia) extract and their application for the environmental remediation of direct violet dye via advanced oxidation process. Molecules 28(1):16. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28010016
An WJ, Thimsen E, Biswas P (2010) Aerosol-chemical vapor deposition method for synthesis of nanostructured metal oxide thin films with controlled morphology. J Phys Chem Lett 1(1):249–253. https://doi.org/10.1021/jz900156d
Bal G, Thakur A (2022) Distinct approaches of removal of dyes from wastewater: a review. Mater Today: Proc 50(5):1575–1579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.09.119
Bhuiyan MSH, Miah MY, Paul SC, Aka TD, Saha O, Rahaman MM, Sharif MJI, Habiba O, Ashaduzzaman M (2020) Green synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticle using Carica papaya leaf extract: application for photocatalytic degradation of remazol yellow RR dye and antibacterial activity. Heliyon 6(8):e04603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04603
Bhukal S, Sharma A, Rishi D, Kumar S, Deepak B, Pal K, Mona S (2022) Spirulina based iron oxide nanoparticles for adsorptive removal of crystal violet dye. Top Catal 65(19–20):1675–1685. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11244-022-01640-3
Cheruiyot GK, Wanyonyi WC, Kiplimo JJ, Maina EN (2019) Adsorption of toxic crystal violet dye using coffee husks: equilibrium, kinetics and thermodynamics study. Sci Afr 5:e00116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2019.e00116
Das S, Samal PP, Qaiyum MA, Dutta S, Dey B, Dey S (2023) Neolamarckia cadamba (cadamba) waste pulp as a natural and techno-economic scavenger for methylene blue from aqueous solutions. Int J Phytoremediation. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2023.2232861
David PS, Karunanithi A, Fathima NN (2020) Improved filtration for dye removal using keratin–polyamide blend nanofibrous membranes. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27:45629–45638. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10491-y
De Lima Barizão AC, Silva MF, Andrade M, Brito FC, Gomes RG, Bergamasco R (2020) Green synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles for tartrazine and bordeaux red dye removal. J Environ Chem Eng 8:103618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.103618
Du T, Chen S, Zhang J, Li T, Li P, Liu J, Du X, Wang S (2020) Antibacterial activity of manganese dioxide nanosheets by ros-mediated pathways and destroying membrane integrity. Nanomater 10(8):1–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano10081545
Dutta T, Sarkar R, Pakhira B, Ghosh S, Sarkar R, Barui A, Sarkar S (2015) ROS generation by reduced graphene oxide (rGO) induced by visible light showing antibacterial activity: comparison with graphene oxide (GO). RSC Adv 5(98):80192–80195. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA14061G
Eltaweil AS, Mohamed HA, Abd El-Monaem EM, El-Subruiti GM (2020) Mesoporous magnetic biochar composite for enhanced adsorption of malachite green dye: characterization, adsorption kinetics, thermodynamics and isotherms. Adv Powder Technol 31(3):1253–1263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apt.2020.01.005
Gemici BT, UcunOzel H, Ozel HB (2020) Adsorption behaviors of crystal violet from aqueous solution using Anatolian black pine (Pinus nigra Arnold.): kinetic and equilibrium studies. Sep Sci Technol. 55(3):406–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/01496395.2019.1577268
Ghazali A, Shirani M, Semnani A, Zare-Shahabadi V, Nekoeinia M (2018) Optimization of crystal violet adsorption onto Date palm leaves as a potent biosorbent from aqueous solutions using response surface methodology and ant colony. J Environ Chem Eng 6:3942–3950. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2018.05.043
Ghulam NA, Abbas MN, Sachit DE (2020) Preparation of synthetic alumina from aluminium foil waste and investigation of its performance in the removal of RG-19 dye from its aqueous solution. Indian Chem Eng 62(3):301–313. https://doi.org/10.1080/00194506.2019.1677512
Gray EP, Browning CL, Vaslet CA, Gion KD, Green A, Liu M, Kane AB, Hurt RH (2020) Chemical and colloidal dynamics of MnO2 nanosheets in biological media relevant for nanosafety assessment. Small 16(21):2000303. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202000303
Gul S, Gul S, Gul H, Khitab F, Khattak R, Khan MS, Ullah R, Ullah R, Wasil Z, Krauklis AE, Zekker I (2023) Dried leaves powder of Adiantum capillus-veneris as an efficient biosorbent for hazardous crystal violet dye from water resources. Separations 10(3):165. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations10030165
Hasan IMA, Salman HMA, Hafez OM (2022) Ficus-mediated green synthesis of manganese oxide nanoparticles for adsorptive removal of malachite green from surface water. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30:28144–28161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24199-8
Hayashi H, Hakuta Y (2010) Hydrothermal synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles in supercritical water. Materials 3(7):3794–3817. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma3073794
He D, He X, Wang K, Yang X, Yang X, Li X, Zou Z (2014) Nanometer-sized manganese oxide-quenched fluorescent oligonucleotides: an effective sensing platform for probing biomolecular interactions. Chem Comm 50(75):11049–11052. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6NR03129C
He J, Wu P, Lu L, Li H, Ji H, He M, Jia Q, Hua M, Zhu W, Li H (2019) Lattice-refined transition-metal oxides via ball milling for boosted catalytic oxidation performance. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 11(40):36666–36675. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b12063
Heidari E, Boutorabi SMA, Honaramooz MT, Campbell J (2022) Ablation casting of thin-wall ductile iron. Inter Metalcast 16:166–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40962-021-00579-7
Hussain D, Khan SA, Khan TA (2021) Fabrication and characterization of mesoporous guar gum/NiWO4 nanocomposite for efficient adsorption of phloxine B and crystal violet from aqueous solution and evaluation of its antioxidant activity. Colloids Interface Sci Commun 44:100488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colcom.2021.100488
Iqbal MN, Javed T, Taj MB (2022) Coriandrum sativum seeds as a green low-cost biosorbent for crystal violet dye removal from wastewater. Desalin Water Treat 267:186–200. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2022.28628
Jannesari M, Akhavan O, Madaah Hosseini HR, Bakhshi B (2020) Graphene/CuO2nanoshuttles with controllable release of oxygen nanobubbles promoting interruption of bacterial respiration. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 12(32):35813–35825. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c05732
Jannesari M, Akhavan O, Hosseini HR, Bakhshi B (2023) Oxygen-rich graphene/ZnO2-Ag nanoframeworks with pH-switchable catalase/peroxidase activity as O2 nanobubble-self generator for bacterial inactivation. J Colloid Interface Sci 637:237–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2023.01.079
Jassal V, Shanker U, Gahlot S, Kaith BS, Kamaluddin, Iqubal MA, Samuel P(2016). Sapindus mukorossi mediated green synthesis of some manganese oxide nanoparticles interaction with aromatic amines. Appl Phys A 122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00339-016-9777-4
Jayamurugan P, Deivanayaki S, Ashokan S, Krishnan VG, Rao NVSSS, Chandrasekaran J, Massoud EES (2022) Impact of MnO2 on the optical electrical and antibacterial characteristics of graphite/polyaniline ternary composites. J Mater Sci: Mater Electron 33:7227–7235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-022-07902-w
Kandil H, Ali H (2023) Simultaneous removal of cationic crystal violet and anionic reactive yellow dyes using eco-friendly chitosan functionalized by talc and cloisite 30B. J Polym Environ 31:1456–1477. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-022-02682-0
Kanha P, Saengkwamsawang P (2017) Effect of stirring time on morphology and crystalline features of MnO2 nanoparticles synthesized by co-precipitation method. Inorg Nano-Met Chem 47(8):1129–1133. https://doi.org/10.1080/24701556.2017.1284100
Kanniah P, Radhamani J, Chelliah P, Muthusamy N, Thangapandi EJJSB, Thangapandi JR, Balakrishnan S, Shanmugam R (2020) Green synthesis of multifaceted silver nanoparticles using the flower extract of Aerva lanata and evaluation of its biological and environmental applications. ChemistrySelect 5:2322–2331. https://doi.org/10.1002/slct.201903228
Kumar A, Pandey AK, Singh SS, Shanker R, Dhawan A (2011) Engineered ZnO and TiO2 nanoparticles induce oxidative stress and DNA damage leading to reduced viability of Escherichia coli. Free Radic Biol Med 51(10):1872–1881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2011.08.025
Lakshmi Prasanna V, Vijayaraghavan R (2015) Insight into the mechanism of antibacterial activity of ZnO: surface defects mediated reactive oxygen species even in the dark. Langmuir 31(33):9155–9162. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.langmuir.5b02266
Liu S, Zeng TH, Hofmann M, Burcombe E, Wei J, Jiang R, Kong J, Chen Y (2011) Antibacterial activity of graphite, graphite oxide, graphene oxide, and reduced graphene oxide: membrane and oxidative stress. ACS Nano 5(9):6971–6980. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn202451x
Mahalakshmi SN, Achala HG, Ramyashree KR, PrashithKekuda TR (2019) Rauvolfia tetraphylla L(Apocynaceae)-a comprehensive review on its ethnobotanical uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological activities. Int J Pharm Biol Sci. 9(2):664–682. https://doi.org/10.21276/ijpbs.2019.9.2.81
Mahato R, Qaiyum MA, Samal PP, Dutta S, Dey B, Dey S (2023) Exploring the promising potential of fallen bamboo leaves (Bambusa bambos) for efficient removal of crystal violet from wastewater. Int J Phytoremediation 25:1042–1051. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2022.2125498
Mehmandost N, Goudarzi N, Arab Chamjangali M, Bagherian G (2022) Application of random forest for modeling batch and continuous fixed-bed removal of crystal violet from aqueous solutions using Gypsophila aretioides stem-based biosorbent. Spectrochim Acta A Mol Biomol Spectrosc 265:120292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2021.120292
Meidanchi A, Akhavan O (2014) Superparamagnetic zinc ferrite spinel-graphene nanostructures for fast wastewater purification. Carbon 69:230–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2013.12.019
Moeen M, Nouren S, Zaib M, Bibi I, Kausar A, Sultan M (2022) Green synthesis, characterization and sorption efficiency of MnO2 nanoparticles and MnO2@waste eggshell nanocomposite. J Taibah Univ Sci 16(1):1075–1095. https://doi.org/10.1080/16583655.2022.2139483
Moghazy RM, Labena A, Husien S (2019) Eco-friendly complementary biosorption process of methylene blue using micro-sized dried biosorbents of two macro-algal species (Ulva fasciata and Sargassum dentifolium): full factorial design, equilibrium, and kinetic studies. Int J Biol Macromol 134:330–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.04.207
Mondal P, Purkait MK (2019) Preparation and characterization of novel green synthesized iron–aluminum nanocomposite and studying its efficiency in fluoride removal. Chemosphere 235:391–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.06.189
Pashaei-Fakhri S, Peighambardoust SJ, Foroutan R, Arsalani N, Ramavandi B (2021) Crystal violet dye sorption over acrylamide/graphene oxide bonded sodium alginate nanocomposite hydrogel. Chemosphere 270:129419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129419
Piri F, Mollahosseini A, Khadir A, Milani Hosseini M (2019) Enhanced adsorption of dyes on microwave-assisted synthesized magnetic zeolite-hydroxyapatite nanocomposite. J Environ Chem Eng 7:103338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.103338
Purwiandono G, Lestari P (2023) Comparison of two biosorbent beads for methylene blue discoloration in water. J Ecol Eng 24:137–145. https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/166319
Putri KNA, Keereerak A, Chinpa W (2020) Novel cellulose-based biosorbent from lemongrass leaf combined with cellulose acetate for adsorption of crystal violet. Int J Biol Macromol 156:762–772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.04.100
Qaiyum MA, Samal PP, Dutta S, Dey B, Dey S (2023) Non-conventional, burnt Shorea robusta leaf extract mediated green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles and facile removal of eriochrome black T dye from water. Int J Phytoremediation. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2023.2256903
Rahmat M, Kiran S, Gulzar T, Khalid J, Fatima N, Ullah A, Azam M (2023) Plant-assisted synthesis and characterization of MnO2 nanoparticles for removal of crystal violet dye: an environmental remedial approach. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30:57587–57598. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-26601-5
Rambabu K, Bharath G, Banat F, Show PL (2021) Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Phoenix dactylifera waste as bioreductant for effective dye degradation and antibacterial performance in wastewater treatment. J Hazard Mater 402:123560. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123560
Ramezani Farani M, Farsadrooh M, Zare I, Gholami A, Akhavan O (2023) Green synthesis of magnesium oxide nanoparticles and nanocomposites for photocatalytic antimicrobial, antibiofilm and antifungal applications. Catalysts 13(4):642. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal13040642
Rehman R, Majeed S (2021) Biosorptive removal of crystal violet dye from aqueous solutions by Ficus religiosa leaves and Daucus carota pomace in ecofriendly way. Int J Phytoremediation 24(10):1004–1013. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2021.1991269
Sadiq H, Sher F, Sehar S, Lima EC, Zhang S, Iqbal HMN, Zafar F, Nuhanovic M (2021) Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles from Syzygium cumini leaves extract with robust photocatalysis applications. J Mol Liq 335:116567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.116567
Saha K, Ghosh A, Bhattacharya T, Ghosh S, Dey S, Chattopadhyay D (2023) Ameliorative effects of clindamycin - nanoceria conjugate: a ROS responsive smart drug delivery system for diabetic wound healing study. J Trace Elem Med Biol 75:36427436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2022.127107
Samal PP, Qaiyum MA, Dutta S, Mohanta J, Dey B, Dey S (2022) Towards a circular economy: chemical packaging waste as a promising scavenger for neutral red from water and wastewater. Int J Environ Sci Technol 20:12533–12544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-022-04670-2
Samal PP, Qaiyum MA, Dutta S, Dey B, Dey S (2023) Augmented dye eradication from wastewater using alkali-aided, reinforced waste acacia (Acacia auriculiformis) leaves. Int J Phytoremediation. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2023.2220404
Samrot AV, Ali HH, Selvarani AJ, Faradjeva E, Raji P, Prakash P, Kumar SS (2021) Adsorption efficiency of chemically synthesized superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) on crystal violet dye. Curr Res Green Sustain Chem 4:100066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crgsc.2021.100066
Saod WM, Hamid LL, Alaallah NJ, Ramizy A (2022) Biosynthesis and antibacterial activity of manganese oxide nanoparticles prepared by green tea extract. Biotechnol Rep 34:e00729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.btre.2022.e00729
Saroyan HS, Arampatzidou A, Voutsa D, Lazaridis NK, Deliyanni EA (2019) Activated carbon supported MnO 2 for catalytic degradation of reactive black 5. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 566:166–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2019.01.025
Selvaraj R, Pai S, Murugesan G, Pandey S, Bhole R, Delicia G, Varadavenkatesan T, Vinaygam R (2021) Green synthesis of magnetic α–Fe2O3 nanospheres using Bridelia retusa leaf extract for Fenton-like degradation of crystal violet dye. Appl Nanosci 11:2227–2234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-021-01952-y
Shanmugam S, Karthik K, Veerabagu U, Hari A, Swaminathan K, Al-Kheraif AA, Whangchai K (2021) Bi-model cationic dye adsorption by native and surface-modified Trichoderma asperellum BPL MBT1 biomass: from fermentation waste to value-added biosorbent. Chemosphere 277:130311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130311
Shimi AK, Ahmed HM, Wahab M, Katheria S, Wabaidur SM, Eldesoky GE, Islam MA, Rane KP (2022) Synthesis and applications of green synthesized TiO2nanoparticles for photocatalytic dye degradation and antibacterial activity. J Nanomater 2022:7060388. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/7060388
Siddiqui SI, Manzoor O, Mohsin M, Chaudhry SA (2019) Nigella sativa seed based nanocomposite-MnO2/BC: an antibacterial material for photocatalytic degradation, and adsorptive removal of methylene blue from water. Environ Res 171:328–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2018.11.044
Souri M, Hoseinpour V, Ghaemi N, Shakeri A (2019) Procedure optimization for green synthesis of manganese dioxide nanoparticles by Yucca gloriosa leaf extract. Int Nano Lett 9:73–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40089-018-0257-z
Tran HA, Tran MH, Tran PA (2020) Antibiotic resistance of S aureus on a ‘bifunctional’surface: an in vitro coculture study. Mater Lett 280:128542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2020.128542
Wan W, Xing Y, Qin X, Li X, Liu S, Luo X, Huang Q, Chen W (2020) A manganese-oxidizing bacterial consortium and its biogenic Mn oxides for dye decolorization and heavy metal adsorption. Chemosphere 253:126627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126627
Wang YW, Cao A, Jiang Y, Zhang X, Liu JH, Liu Y, Wang H (2014) Superior antibacterial activity of zinc oxide/graphene oxide composites originating from high zinc concentration localized around bacteria. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 6(4):2791–2798. https://doi.org/10.1021/am4053317
Yusuf M, Song K, Geng S, Fazhi X (2020) Adsorptive removal of anionic dyes by graphene impregnated with MnO2 from aqueous solution. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 595:124667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2020.124667
Zhang P, O’Connor D, Wang Y, Jiang L, Xia T, Wang L, Tsang DCW, Ok YS, Hou D (2020) A green biochar/iron oxide composite for methylene blue removal. J Hazard Mater 384:121286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121286
Acknowledgements
PPS and MAQ thank the Central University of Jharkhand for providing a fellowship.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Conceptualization, formal analysis, writing—original draft, investigation, validation: PPS; methodology, software, visualization: JS; data curation: M.AQ; methodology: AG; methodology: DM; review and editing: BD; project administration, supervision: SD.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
The authors give consent to participate in submitting this work.
Consent for publication
If the article is accepted, the authors give consent to publish this work in Environmental Science and Pollution Research.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: George Z. Kyzas
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Samal, P.P., Swain, J., Qaiyum, M.A. et al. Green synthesis of MnO2-embedded Rauvolfia tetraphylla leaves (MnO2@RTL) for crystal violet dye removal and as an antibacterial agent. Environ Sci Pollut Res 31, 5457–5472 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-31442-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-31442-3