Abstract
This study investigated the influence of environmental factors (UV radiation and salinity) in the degradative process of microplastics (MPs). MPs derived from polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and ethylene–vinyl acetate (EVA) were subjected to accelerated photodegradation while being submerged in distilled water or artificial seawater. Depending on the polymer, changes in surface properties, new functional chemical group formation and oxidative index, and thermal characteristics of samples were observed. After photodegradation experiments, EVA-MPs samples showed an increase in their thermal resistance, besides the changes in their surface. PP-MPs crystallinity index increased upon exposure to UV radiation. PS samples showed a higher carbonyl and hydroxyl index after 30 h of UV exposure. The methodology exploited applies to any location in the world and can be comparable once considering the total ultraviolet index (UVI). The saline medium increases the crystallinity index of PP and EVA-MPs samples and intensifies the formation of new carbonyl and hydroxyl bonds in EVA-MPs samples. The results showed that several environmental factors should be considered in interpreting MPs photodegradation.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alfred Wegener Institute (2023) The amount and distribution of and microplastic. Litterbase. Retrieved from https://litterbase.awi.de/litter_detail. Accessed 9 Jun 2023
Amelia TSM, Khalik WMAWM, Ong MC, Shao YT, Pan HJ, Bhubalan K (2021) Marine microplastics as vectors of major ocean pollutants and its hazards to the marine ecosystem and humans. Prog Earth Planet Sci 8(1):1–26. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40645-020-00405-4
Ammala A, Bateman S, Dean K, Petinakis E, Sangwan P, Wong S, Yuan Q, Yu L, Patrick C, Leong KH (2011) An overview of degradable and biodegradable polyolefins. Prog Polym Sci 36(8):1015–1049. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2010.12.002
Andrady AL (2011) Microplastics in the marine environment. Mar Pollut Bull 62(8):1596–1605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.05.030
Andrady AL (2015) Persistence of plastic litter in the oceans. In: Bergmann M, Gutow L, Klages M (eds) Marine Anthropogenic Litter. Springer, New York, pp 29–58
Andrady AL (2022) Weathering and fragmentation of plastic debris in the ocean environment. Mar Pollut Bull 180:113761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.113761
Andrady AL, Pegram JE, Song Y (1993) Studies on enhanced degradable plastics. II. Weathering of enhanced photodegradable polyethylenes under marine and freshwater floating exposure. J Environ Polym Degr 1:117–126. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01418205
Andrady AL, Hamid AH, Torikai A (2003) Effects of climate change and UV-B on materials. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2(1):68–72. https://doi.org/10.1039/b211085g
Andrady AL, Barnes PW, Bornman JF, Gouin T, Madronich S, White CC, Zepp RG, Jansen MAK (2022) Oxidation and fragmentation of plastics in a changing environment; from UV-radiation to biological degradation. Sci Total Environ 851:158022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158022
ASTM D6954-18 (2018) Standard guide for exposing and testing plastics that degrade in the environment by a combination of oxidation and biodegradation. American Society for Testing. Book of Standards volume: 08.03. ASTM International, Philadelphia. https://doi.org/10.1520/D6954-18
ASTM D883 (2012) Standard terminology relating to plastics. Materials, American Society for Testing. Book of Standards volume: 08.01. ASTM International, Philadelphia. https://doi.org/10.1520/D0883-12
Avio CG, Gorbi S, Regoli F (2017) Plastics and microplastics in the oceans: from emerging pollutants to emerged threat. Mar Environ Res 128:2–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2016.05.012
Barnes DKA, Galgani F, Thompson RC, Barlaz M (2009) Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments. Phil Trans r Soc B 364:1985–1998. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0205
Bejgarn S, MacLeod M, Bogdal C, Breitholtz M (2015) Toxicity of leachate from weathering plastics: an exploratory screening study with Nitocra spinipes. Chemosphere 132:114–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.03.010
Binda G, Spanu D, Monticelli D, Pozzi A, Bellasi A, Bettinetti R, Carnati S, Nizzetto L (2021) Unfolding the interaction between microplastics and (trace) elements in water: a critical review. Water Res 204:117637. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.117637
Borelly DF (2002) Estudo comparativo da degradação de poliestireno e de poliestireno de alto impacto por envelhecimentos natural e artificial. Master’s dissertation. Escola Politécnica, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, p 108. Retrived from https://teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/3/3137/tde-15052002-090301/publico/PSwomDan.pdf
Brandon J, Goldstein M, Ohman MD (2016) Long-term aging and degradation of microplastic particles: comparing in situ and oceanic and experimental weathering process. Mar Poll Bull. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.06.048
Browne MA, Galloway T, Thompson R (2007) Microplastic – an emerging contaminant of potential concern? Integr Environ Assess Manag 3(4):559–561. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.5630030412
Cai L, Wang J, Peng J, Wu Z, Tan X (2018) Observation of the degradation of the three types of plastic pellets exposed to UV irradiation in three different environments. Sci Total Environ 628–629:740–747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.079
Canevarolo SV Jr (2013) Ciência dos polímeros: um texto básico para tecnólogos e engenheiros. Editora Artliber, São Paulo, p 53p
Castel DC (2008) Estudo sobre compatibilizantes em nanocompósitos de polipropileno-montmorilonita. Master’s dissertation. Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, p 78. Retrived from https://lume.ufrgs.br/bitstream/handle/10183/33415/000675479.pdf;sequence=1
Chaudhary AK, Vijayakumar RP (2020) Studies on biological degradation of polystyrene by pure fungal cultures. Environ Dev Sustain 22:4495–4508. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-019-00394-5
Chen Q, Wang Q, Zhang C, Zhang J, Dong Z, Xu Q (2021) Aging simulation of thin-film plastics in different environments to examine the formation of microplastic. Water Res 202:117462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.117462
Clark JR, Cole M, Lindeque PK, Fileman E, Blackford J, Lewis C, Galloway TS (2016) Marine microplastic debris: a targeted plan for understanding and quantifying interactions with marine life. Front Ecol Environ 14(6):317–324. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1297
Cole M, Lindeque P, Halsband C, Galloway TS (2011) Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: a review. Mar Pollut Bull 62(12):2588–2597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.09.025
Cooper DA, Corcoran PL (2010) Effects of mechanical and chemical processes on the degradation of plastic beach debris on the island of Kauai Hawaii. Mar Pollut Bull 60(5):650–654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.12.026
Cooper DA (2012) Effects of chemical and mechanical weathering processes on the degradation of plastic debris on marine beaches. PhD thesis. The School of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies, University os Western Ontario, Canada. 219p.
Corcoran PL, Biesinger MC, Grifi M (2009) Plastics and beaches: a degrading relationship. Mar Pollut Bull 58(1):80–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.08.022
Correa MP (2015) Solar ultravioleta radiation: properties, characteristics and amounts observed in Brazil and South America. An Brasi Dermatol 90(3):297–313. https://doi.org/10.1590/abd1806-4841.20154089
Costa JP, Nunes AR, Santos PSM, Girão AV, Duarte AC, Rocha-Santos T (2018) Degradation of polyethylene microplastics in seawater: insights into the environmental degradation of polymers. J Environ Sci Health A 53(9):866–875. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2018.1455381
Critchell K, Lambrechts J (2016) Modelling accumulation of marine plastics in the coastal zone; what are the dominant physical processes? Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 171:111–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2016.01.036
Cui Q, Yang X, Li J, Miao Y, Zhang X (2022) Microplastics generation behavior of polypropylene films with different crystalline structures under UV irradiation. Polym Degrada Stabil 199:109916. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2022.109916
De Paoli MA (2008) Degradação e estabilização de polímeros. Editora Artliber, São Paulo, p 221
Diez E, Rodriguez A, Gomez JM, Galan J (2021) TG and DSC as tools to analyse the thermal behaviour of EVA copolymers. J Elastom Plast 53(7):792–805. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095244320988163
Ding L, Mao R, Ma S, Guo X, Zhu L (2020) High temperature depend on the ageing mechanism of microplastics under different environmental conditions and its effect on the distribution of organic pollutants. Water Res 174:e115634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.115634
Erni-Cassola G, Zadjelovic V, Gibson MI, Christie-Oleza JA (2019) Distribution of plastic polymer types in the marine environment; a meta-analysis. J Hazar Mat 369:691–698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.02.067
Fayolle B, Richaud E, Colin X, Verdu J (2008) Review: degradation-induced embrittlement in semi-crystalline polymers having their amorphous phase in rubbery state. J Mater Sci 43:6999–7012. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-008-3005-3
Feldman D (2002) Polymer weathering: photo-oxidation. J Polym Environ 10(4):163–173. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021148205366
Galgani F, Hanke G, Maes T (2015) Global distribution, composition and abundance of marine litter. In: Bergmann M, Gutow L, Klages M (eds) Marine Anthropogenic Litter. Springer, New York, pp 29–58
Gewert B, Plassmann MM, MacLeod M (2015) Pathways for degradation of plastic polymers floating in the marine environment. Environ Sci Process Impacts 17:1513–1521. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5EM00207A
Gewert B, MacLeod M, Breitholtz M (2021) Variability in toxicity of plastic leachates as a function of weathering and polymer type: a screening study with the copepod nitocra spinipes. Biol Bull 240(3):191–199. https://doi.org/10.1086/714506
Guo X, Wang J (2019) The chemical behaviors of microplastics in marine environment: a review. Mar Pollut Bull 142:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.03.019
Harrison JP, Sapp M, Schratzberger M, Osborn AM (2011) Interactions between microorganisms and marine microplastics: a call for research. Mar Technol Soc J 45(2):12–20. https://doi.org/10.4031/MTSJ.45.2.2
Hatchard CG, Parker CA (1956) A new sensitive chemical actinometer – II. Potassium ferrioxalate as a standard chemical actinometer. Proc R Soc Lond A 235:518–536. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1956.0102
Huang Z, Cui Q, Yang X, Wang F, Zhang X (2023) An evaluation model to predict microplastics generation from polystyrene foams and experimental verification. J Hazard Mat 446:130673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.130673
Ildefonso JS (2007) Análise da viabilidade técnica da utilização do polietileno acetato de vinila (EVA) descartado pela indústria calçadista em misturas asfálticas (processo seco). Master’s Dissertation. Escola de Engenharia de São Carlos, University of São Paulo, São Carlos, p 335. Retrived from http://repositorio.eesc.usp.br/items/33a92c5d-01da-4fc2-8fb8-1d10f8c8f6c7
Jing J, Chen S, Zhang J (2010) UV aging behaviour of ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymers (EVA) with different vinyl acetate contentes. Polym Degrada Stabil 95(5):725–732. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2010.02.020
Kaposi KL, Mos B, Kelaher BP, Dworjanyn SA (2014) Ingestion of microplastic has limited impact on a 901 marine larva. Environ Sci Technol 48:1638–1645. https://doi.org/10.1021/es404295e
Kedzierski M, D’Almeida M, Magueresse A, Le Grand A, Duval H, César G, Sire O, Bruzaud S, Le Tilly V (2018) Threat of plastic ageing in marine environment. Adsorption/desorption of Micropollutants. Mar Pollut Bull 127:684–694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.12.059
Khonakdar HA, Morshedian J, Wagenknecht U, Jafari SH (2003) An investigation of chemical crosslinking effect on properties of high-density polyethylene. Polymer 44(15):4301–4309. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0032-3861(03)00363-X
Klein S, Dimzon IK, Eubeler J, Knepper TP (2018) Analysis, occurrence, and degradation of microplastics in the aqueous environment. In: Wagner I, Lambert S (eds) Freshwater microplastics: emerging environmental contaminants? The handbook of environmental chemistry, vol 58. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-61615-5_3
Kulshreshtha AK (1992) Chemical degradation. In: Hamid SH, Amin MB, Maadhah AG (eds) Dharan. Handbook of polymer degradation, Dharan, Saudi Arabia, pp 55–94
Lacerda AL, Taylor JD, dS Rodrigues L, Kessler F, Secchi E, Proietti MC (2022) Floating plastics and their associated biota in the Western South Atlantic. Sci Tot Environ 805:150186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150186
Lee TH, Boey FYC, Khor KA (1995) On the determination of polymer crystallinity for a thermoplastic PPS composite by thermal analysis. Comp Sci Techno 53(3):259–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/0266-3538(94)00070-0
Liu P, Zhan X, Wu X, Li J, Wang H, Gao S (2019) Effect of wheatering on environmental behaviour of microplastics: properties, sorption and potential risks. Chemosphere 242:125193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125193
Lv Y, Huang Y, Yang J, Kong M, Yang H, Zhao J, Li G (2015) Outdoor and accelerated laboratory weathering of polypropylene: a comparison and correlation study. Polym Degrada Stabi 112:145–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2014.12.023
Ma J, Yu P, Xia B, An Y (2019) Effect of salt and temperature on molecular aggregation behavior of acrylamide polymer. e-Polymers 19(1):594–606. https://doi.org/10.1515/epoly-2019-0063
Majewsky M, Bitter H, Eiche E, Horn H (2016) Determination of microplastic polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) in environmental samples using thermal analysis (TGA-DSC). Sci Total Environ 568(15):507–511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.06.017
McKinley A, Diffey BL (1987) A reference action spectrum for ultra-violet induced erythema in human skin. In: Passchier WF, Bosnajakovic BFM (eds) Human Exposure to Ultra-violet Radiation: Risks and Regulations. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands, pp 83–87
Montagna LS, Camargo Forte MM, Santana RMC (2013) Induced degradation of polypropylene with an organic pro-degradant additive. J Mater Sci Eng A 3(2):123–131
Moore CJ (2008) Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: a rapidly increasing, longterm threat. Environ Res 108(2):131–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2008.07.025
Moraes SB, Botan R, Lona LMF (2014) Síntese e caracterização de nanocompósitos de poliestireno/hidroxissal lamelar. Quim Nova 37(1):18–21. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-40422014000100004
Moura I, Botelho G, Machado AV (2014) Characterization of EVA/PLA blends when exposed to different environments. J Poly Environ 22(1):148–157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-013-0614-y
Neale RE, Barnes PW, Robson TM, Williamson CE, Zepp RG, Wilson SR, Madronich S, Andrady AL, Heikkila AM, Bernhard GH, Bais AF, Aucamp PJ, Banaszak AT, Bornman JF, Bruckman LS, Byrne SN, Foereid B, Hader DP, Hollestein LM, Hou WC, Hylander S, Jansen MAK, Klekociuk AR, Liley JB, Longstreth J, Lucas RM, Martinez-Abaigar J, MacNeill K, Olsen CM, Pandey KK, Rhodes LE, Robinson SA, Rose KC, Schikowski T, Solomon KR, Sulzberger B, Ukpebor JE, Wang QW, Wangberg SA, White CC, Yazar S, Young AR, Young PJ, Zhu L, Zhu M (2021) Environmental effects of stratospheric ozone depletion, UV radiation, and interactions with climate change: UNEP Environmental Effects Assessment Panel, Update 2020. Photochem Photobiol Sci 20:1–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43630-020-00001-x
Oliveira MMC (2018) Estudo da fotodegradação e desenvolvimento de encapsulante para módulos fotovoltáicos de silício cristalino baseado no nanocompósito EVA/GO. PhD thesis. Escola de Engenharia- Departamento de Engenharia Química,Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, p 141. Retrived from https://repositorio.ufmg.br/handle/1843/BUOS-B58LTZ
Orden MUDL, Montes JM, MartínezUrreaga J, Bento A, Ribeiro MR, Pérez E, Cerrada ML (2015) Thermo and photo-oxidation of functionalised metallocene high density polyethylene: effect of hydrophilic groups. Polym Degrad Stabil 11:78–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2014.10.023
Pavia D, Lampman G, Kriz G, Vyvyan J (eds) (2008) Introduction to spectroscopy. Cengage Learning, p 752
Pires JP (2019) Estudo da degradação de blendas de polipropileno com aditivos comerciais. Master’s Dissertation. Escola Politécnica, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, p 133p
Quero GM, Luna GM (2017) Surfing and dining on the “plastisphere”: microbial life on plastic marine debris. Adv Ocean Limnol 8(2):199–207. https://doi.org/10.4081/aiol.2017.7211
Rodriguez AK, Mansoor B, Ayoub G, Colin X, Benzerga AA (2020) Effect of UV aging on the mechanical and fracture behavior of low density polyethylene. Polym Degrad Stabil 180:109185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2020.109185
Rouillon C, Bussiere PO, Desnoux E, Collin S, Vial C, Therias S, Gardette JL (2016) Is carbonyl index a quantitative probe to monitor polypropylene photodegradation? Polym Degrad Stabil 128:200–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2015.12.011
Rummel CD, Escher BI, Sandblom O, Plassman MM, Arp HPH, Macleod M, Jahnke A (2019) Effect of leachates from UV-weatheres microplastic in cell-based bioassays. Environ Sci Technol 53(15):9214–9223. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b02400
Rummel CD, Jahnke A, Gorokhova E, Kühnel D, Schmitt-Jansen M, (2017) Impacts of biofilm formation on the fate and potential effects of microplastic in the aquatic environment. Environ Sci Technol Lett 4(7):258–267. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.7b00164
Shi X-M, Zhang J, Li D-R, Chen S-J (2009) Effect of damp-heat aging on the structures and properties of ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymers with different vinyl acetate contents. J Appl Polym Sci 112(4):2358–2365. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.29659
Song YK, Hong SH, Jang M, Han GM, Jung SW, Shim WJ (2017) Combined effects of UV exposure duration and mechanical abrasion on microplastic fragmentation by polymer type. Environ Sci Technol 51(8):4368–4376. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b06155
Valentim ACS, Tavares MIB, Silva EO (2014) Efeito da adição de TiO2 nas propriedades térmicas e na cristalinidade do copolímero de etileno/acetate de vinila. Quim Nova 37(2):255–259. https://doi.org/10.5935/0100-4042.20140044
Vroom RJ, Koelmans AA, Besseling E, Halsband C (2017) Aging of microplastics promotes their ingestion by marine zooplankton. Environ Poll 231:987–996. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.08.088
Wang X, Zheng H, Zhao J, Luo X, Wang Z, Xing B (2020) Photodegradation elevated the toxicity of polystyrene microplastics to grouper (Epinephelusmoara) through disrupting hepatic lipid homeostasis. Environ Sci Technol 54(10):6202–6212. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b07016
Zattera AJ, Bianchi O, Zeni M, Ferreira CA (2005) Caracterização de resíduos de copolímeros de etileno acetate de vinila. Polímeros 15(1):73–78. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-14282005000100016
Zbyszewski M, Corcoran PL (2011) Distribution and degradation of fresh water plastic particles along the beaches of Lake Huron, Canada. Water Air Soil Pollut 220:365–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-011-0760-6
Zbyszewski M, Corcoran PL, Hockin A (2014) Comparison of the distribution and degradation of plastic debris along shorelines of the Great Lakes North America. J Great Lakes Res 40(2):288–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jglr.2014.02.012
Zettler ER, Mincer TJ, Amaral-Zettler LA (2013) Life in the “plastisphere”: microbial communities on 1260 plastic marine debris. Environ Sci Technol 47:7137–7146. https://doi.org/10.1021/es401288x
Zhou Q, Zhang H, Fu C, Zhou Y, Dai Z, Li Y, Tu C, Luo Y (2018) The distribution and morphology of microplastics in coastal soils adjacent to the Bohai Sea and the Yellow Sea. Geoderma 322:201–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.02.015
Acknowledgements
The authors thank CAPES for providing a master scholarship to Luana F. Silva. We also thank CEME-SUL (FURG) for SEM analysis and CIA (FURG) for thermal analysis. We also like to thank the student Kewin Castro (PIBIC/CNPQ graduate scholarship student) for his help in the SEM analysis. Sanye Soroldoni was a post-doctoral fellow (PDJ nº 150528/2020-5), and Grasiela L.L. Pinho was a research fellow (PQ2 nº 304495/2019-0) of CNPq. Felipe Kessler and Andreia N. Fernandes acknowledge the CNPq for a research grant (435612/2018-2 and 308220/2020-0). Special thanks to Dr. Walter Waldman for the contributions in manuscript revision.
Funding
This research was supported by FAPERGS (TO 18/2551–0000528-2) and CNPq (425520/2018–8, 435612/2018–2 and 406391/2021–1).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
LFS: conceptualization, laboratory work, data analysis, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing. SS: conceptualization, resources, laboratory work, data analysis, writing—review and editing. FK: resources, conceptualization, writing—review and editing. ANF: resources, conceptualization, writing—review and editing. GLLP: conceptualization, resources, writing—review and editing.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Thomas D. Bucheli
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
da Silva, L.F., Soroldoni, S., Kessler, F. et al. Influence of UV exposure time and simulated marine environment on different microplastic degradation. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 121450–121464 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-30925-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-30925-7