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Determination of degradation/reaction rate for surface water quality of recycled water using Lake2K model for large-scale water recycling

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Abstract

The depletion of groundwater resources in the water-stressed regions has led to the overuse of surface water reservoirs. Recharging groundwater by rejuvenating dried surface reservoirs using recycled water is a new sustainable solution. To ensure the prevention of groundwater contamination and associated health risks (as recycled water is used), it is crucial to assess the surface reservoir water quality. The study for the first time suggests the Lake2K model, a one-dimensional mechanistic mass-balance model, to simulate the changes in water quality in a series of man-made surface water reservoirs where recycled water flows under an indirect groundwater recharge scheme (soil aquifer treatment system). The model was developed, calibrated, and validated using field observations to estimate degradation/reaction rate constants for various water quality parameters. The observed average degradation/reaction rate constants for parameters including ammonia-N, nitrate–N, total nitrogen, total organic carbon, and organic phosphorous were 0.043 day−1, 0.04 day−1, 0.043 day−1, 0.055 day−1, and 0.056 day−1, respectively, which were found to be relatively high compared to existing literature, indicating a greater degradation of these parameters in warmer climates. The results showed that the water quality improved significantly as the water progressed through the reservoirs, aligning with field observations. Additionally, the simulated seasonal variations revealed that the maximum growth rate of phytoplankton occurred during July, August, and September for each reservoir, while the nutrient pool (nitrate–N and orthophosphates) experienced the greatest depletion during this growth period. These findings shed light on the dynamics of surface water quality in regions facing water scarcity and contribute to the development of sustainable groundwater management strategies.

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Data availability

The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

ANOVA:

Analysis of variance

BOD:

Biochemical oxygen demand

CGWB:

Central Ground Water Board

CZ:

Carnivorous zooplankton

DO:

Dissolved oxygen

DOC:

Dissolved organic carbon

DOM:

Dissolved organic matter

DOP:

Dissolved organic phosphate

GLEC:

Great Lakes Environmental Center

GUI:

Graphical user interface

GW:

Groundwater

HZ:

Herbivorous zooplankton

IP:

Inorganic phosphorous

ISS:

Inorganic suspended solids

K&C:

Koramangala–Challaghatta

LSD:

Least significant difference

Mcft:

Million cubic feet

MLD:

Millions of liter per day

NGT:

National Green Tribunal

\({\mathrm{NH}}_{4}^{+}\)-N:

Ammoniacal nitrogen

NO2-N:

Nitrite nitrogen

NO3-N:

Nitrate nitrogen

ON:

Organic nitrogen

OP:

Organic phosphorous

Phy:

Phytoplankton

PJK:

Panjiakou

POC:

Particulate organic carbon

SAT:

Soil aquifer treatment

SDG:

Sustainable development goals

SOD:

Sediment oxygen demand

SRP:

Soluble reactive phosphorus

STP/STPs:

Sewage treatment plant/plants

TKN:

Total Kjeldahl nitrogen

TN:

Total nitrogen

TOC:

Total organic carbon

TP:

Total phosphorous

UV:

Ultraviolet

VBA:

Visual Basic for Applications

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Acknowledgements

Special gratitude goes to Shri C. Mruthyunjaya Swamy (Former Secretary to Government, Minor Irrigation & Ground Water Development Department), Shri Yatishchandran (Secretary to Government, Minor Irrigation & Ground Water Development Department), and Shri Krishna M (AEE, Department of Minor Irrigation) for their constant support. The authors also acknowledge the support received from the Bengaluru Water Supply and Sewerage Board (BWSSB). The corresponding author is thankful to SERB-NPDF, Government of India, for providing a research fellowship. The authors are also thankful to the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research-Human Resource Development Group (CSIR-HRDG) for providing a research fellowship to one of the co-authors.

Funding

The authors gratefully acknowledge the Department of Minor Irrigation, the Government of Karnataka, for providing financial support to carry out this research.

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  1. Kavita Verma and Reshma Mohan Thattaramppilly contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India

    Kavita Verma, Reshma Mohan Thattaramppilly, Manjari Manisha, Shwetha Jayakumar, Santrupt Raju Marigoudar, Anirudha Tadpatri Pranesh & Lakshminarayana Rao

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Contributions

K. V. (corresponding author): concept and study design, site selection, data collection, analysis, and drafting of the manuscript; R. M. T.: study design, analysis, modeling (Lake2K model), and drafting of the manuscript; M. M.: study design and review; S. J.: site selection, sample and data collection, analysis, and plotting graphs; S. R. M.: site selection, sample, and data collection; A. T. P.: site selection, sample, and data collection; L. R.: conception, designing of the study, and review of the article.

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Correspondence to Kavita Verma.

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The terminology “degradation rate” is used interchangeably with “reaction rate” depending on the context throughout the manuscript.

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Verma, K., Thattaramppilly, R.M., Manisha, M. et al. Determination of degradation/reaction rate for surface water quality of recycled water using Lake2K model for large-scale water recycling. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 120207–120224 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-30623-4

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