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Occurrence, environmental impact and fate of pharmaceuticals in groundwater and surface water: a critical review

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Abstract

In many nations and locations, groundwater serves as the population's primary drinking water supply. However, pharmaceuticals found in groundwater and surface waters may affect aquatic ecosystems and public health. As a result, their existence in natural raw waters are now more widely acknowledged as a concern. This review summarises the evidence of research on pharmaceuticals' occurrence, impact and fate, considering results from different water bodies. Also, various analytical techniques were reviewed to compare different pharmaceuticals' detection frequencies in water bodies. These include liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC–MS), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS), and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS). However, owing to LC–MS's high sensitivity and specification, it is the most reported instrument used for analysis. The PRISMA reviewing methodology was adopted based on relevant literature in order to focus on aim of the review. Among other pharmaceuticals reviewed, sulfamethoxazole was found to be the most frequently detected drug in wastewater (up to 100% detection frequency). The most reported pharmaceutical group in this review is antibiotics, with sulfamethoxazole having the highest concentration among the analysed pharmaceuticals in groundwater and freshwater (up to 5600 ng/L). Despite extensive study and analysis on the occurrence and fate of pharmaceuticals in the environment, appropriate wastewater management and disposal of pharmaceuticals in the water environment are not still monitored regularly. Therefore, there is a need for mainstream studies tailored to the surveillance of pharmaceuticals in water bodies to limit environmental risks to human and aquatic habitats in both mid and low-income nations.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Analysis, School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University, Western Campus, Ishaka-Bushenyi, Uganda

    Idris Olatunji Sanusi & Godwin Oladele Olutona

  2. Industrial Chemistry Programme, College of Agriculture Engineering and Science, Bowen University, Iwo, Nigeria

    Godwin Oladele Olutona

  3. Department of Basic Science, School of Science and Technology, Kampala International University, Western Campus, Ishaka-Bushenyi, Uganda

    Godwin Oladele Olutona & Ibrahim Garba Wawata

  4. Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University, Western Campus, Ishaka-Bushenyi, Uganda

    Ibrahim Garba Wawata

  5. Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aliero, PMB +243 1144, Birnin Kebbi, Nigeria

    Ibrahim Garba Wawata

  6. Biomolecules, Metagenomics, Endocrine and Tropical Disease Research Group (BMETDREG), Kampala International University, Western Campus, Ishaka-Bushenyi, Uganda

    Hope Onohuean

  7. Biopharmaceutics Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University, Western Campus, Ishaka-Bushenyi, Uganda

    Hope Onohuean

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  1. Idris Olatunji Sanusi
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  4. Hope Onohuean
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Conceptualization: Idris Olatunji Sanusi, Godwin Oladele Olutona, Ibrahim Garba Wawata, Hope Onohuean; Methodology: Idris Olatunji Sanusi, Hope Onohuean; Formal analysis and investigation: Idris Olatunji Sanusi; Writing - original draft preparation: Idris Olatunji Sanusi; Writing - review and editing: Godwin Oladele Olutona, Ibrahim Garba Wawata, Hope Onohuean; Critically revised: Hope Onohuean; Funding acquisition: None; Resources: Idris Olatunji Sanusi, Godwin Oladele Olutona; Supervision: Godwin Oladele Olutona, Ibrahim Garba Wawata, Hope Onohuean.

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Sanusi, I.O., Olutona, G.O., Wawata, I.G. et al. Occurrence, environmental impact and fate of pharmaceuticals in groundwater and surface water: a critical review. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 90595–90614 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-28802-4

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