Abstract
Studying the effects of precipitation on carbon exchange in grassland ecosystems is critical for revealing the mechanisms of the carbon cycle. In this study, the eddy covariance (EC) technique was used to monitor the carbon fluxes in a grassland ecosystem in the Badain Jaran Desert (BJD) during the growing season from 2018 to 2020. The responses of net ecosystem CO2 exchange (NEE), ecosystem respiration (Reco), and gross primary productivity (GPP) to precipitation were analysed, as well as the effects of environmental factors on carbon fluxes at half-hour and daily scales. The results showed that (1) during the growing seasons in 2019 and 2020, the grassland ecosystem in a lake basin in the BJD was a net CO2 sink, and the cumulative NEE was − 91.9 and − 79.2 g C m−2, respectively. The greater the total precipitation in the growing season, the stronger the carbon sequestration capacity of a grassland ecosystem. (2) The precipitation intensity, frequency, and timing significantly affected the carbon fluxes in the ecosystem. Isolated minor precipitation events did not trigger obvious NEE, GPP, and Reco pulses. However, large precipitation events or continuous minor precipitation events over several days caused delayed high assimilation; in addition, the greater the precipitation intensity, the greater the carbon flux pulse and carbon assimilation. The timing and frequency of precipitation events had more important effects on carbon exchange than total precipitation. Droughts create a shift in grasslands, causing them to move from being a carbon sink to a carbon source. (3) Correlation analysis showed that NEE was significantly negatively correlated with photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). On the half-hour scale, Reco and GPP were significantly positively correlated with soil temperature at 5 cm deep (Ts5) and PAR, respectively. However, they were strongly correlated with air temperature (Ta), soil surface temperature (Ts) and (Ts5) on the daily scale. The correlations between daily NEE, Reco, GPP, and precipitation varied across years and seasons. Due to warming and humidification in northwest China, precipitation events will have a greater impact on the carbon sequestration capacity of the BJD. The results are vital for predicting the possible effects of climate change on the carbon cycle.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets in the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Bell TW, Menzer O, Troyo-Diequez E, Oechel WC (2012) Carbon dioxide exchange over multiple temporal scales in an arid shrub ecosystem near La Paz, Baja California Sur, Mexico. Glob Change Biol 18(8):2570–2582. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02720.x
Fa KY, Liu JB, Zhang YQ, Wu B, Qin SG, Feng W, Lai ZR (2015) CO2 absorption of sandy soil induced by rainfall pulses in a desert ecosystem. Hydrol Process 29(8):2043–2051. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10350
Falge E, Baldocchi D, Olson R, Anthoni P, Aubinet M, Bernhofer C, Burba G, Ceulemans R, Clement R, Dolman H, Granier A, Gross P, Grunwald T, Hollinger D, Jensen NO, Katul G, Keronen P, Kowalski A, Lai CT, Law BE, Meyers T, Moncrieff H, Moors E, Munger JW, Pilegaard K, Rannik U, Rebmann C, Suyker A, Tenhunen J, Tu K, Verma S, Vesala T, Wilson K, Wofsy S (2001) Gap filling strategies for defensible annual sums of net ecosystem exchange. Agric for Meteorol 107(1):43–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0168-1923(00)00225-2
Fay PA, Kaufman DM, Nippert JB, Carlisle JD, Harper CW (2008) Changes in grassland ecosystem function due to extreme rainfall events: implications for responses to climate change. Glob Change Biol 14(7):1600–1608. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01605.x
Foken T, Göckede M, Mauder M, Mahrt L, Amiro B, Munger W (2004) Post-field data quality control. In: Lee XH, Massman W, Law B (eds) Handbook of micrometeorology: a guide for surface flux measurement and analysis. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, pp 181–203
Friedlingstein P, Jones MW, O’Sullivan M, Andrew RM, Hauck J, Peters GP, Peters W, Pongratz J, Sitch S, Le Quere C, Bakker DCE, Canadell JG, Ciais P, Jackson RB, Anthoni P, Barbero L, Bastos A, Bastrikov V, Becker M, Bopp L, Buitenhuis E, Chandra N, Chevallier F, Chini LP, Currie KI, Feely RA, Gehlen M, Gilfillan D, Gkritzalis T, Goll DS, Gruber N, Gutekunst S, Harris I, Haverd V, Houghton RA, Hurtt G, Ilyina T, Jain AK, Joetzjer E, Kaplan JO, Kato E, Goldewijk KK, Korsbakken JI, Landschutzer P, Lauvset SK, Lefevre N, Lenton A, Lienert S, Lombardozzi D, Marland G, McGuire PC, Melton JR, Metzl N, Munro DR, Nabel J, Nakaoka SI, Neill C, Omar AM, Ono T, Peregon A, Pierrot D, Poulter B, Rehder G, Resplandy L, Robertson E, Rodenbeck C, Seferian R, Schwinger J, Smith N, Tans PP, Tian HQ, Tilbrook B, Tubiello FN, van der Werf GR, Wiltshire AJ, Zaehle S (2019) Global carbon budget 2019. Earth Syst Sci Data 11(4):1783–1838. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-11-1783-2019
Goncharova O, Matyshak G, Udovenko M, Semenyuk O, Epstein H, Bobrik A (2020) Temporal dynamics, drivers, and components of soil respiration in urban forest ecosystems. Catena 185:8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2019.104299
Hao YB, Wang YF, Mei XR, Cui XY, Zhou XQ, Huang XZ (2010) The sensitivity of temperate steppe CO2 exchange to the quantity and timing of natural interannual rainfall. Ecol Inform 5(3):222–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoinf.2009.10.002
Hastings SJ, Oechel WC, Muhlia-Melo A (2005) Diurnal, seasonal and annual variation in the net ecosystem CO2 exchange of a desert shrub community (Sarcocaulescent) in Baja California. Mexico Glob Change Biol 11(6):927–939. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2005.00951.x
Herczeg AL, Dogramaci SS, Leaney FWJ (2001) Origin of dissolved salts in a large, semi-arid groundwater system: Murray Basin, Australia. Mar Freshwater Res 52(1):41–52. https://doi.org/10.1071/mf00040
Houghton RA (1994) The Worldwide Extent of Land-Use Change 44(5):305–313. https://doi.org/10.2307/1312380
Huxman TE, Snyder KA, Tissue D, Leffler AJ, Ogle K, Pockman WT, Sandquist DR, Potts DL, Schwinning S (2004) Precipitation pulses and carbon fluxes in semiarid and arid ecosystems. Oecologia 141(2):254–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-004-1682-4
IPCC (2021) Climate change 2021 the physical science basis: working group I contribution to the sixth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/#TS.
Jarvis P, Rey A, Petsikos C, Wingate L, Rayment M, Pereira J, Banza J, David J, Miglietta F, Borghetti M, Manca G, Valentini R (2007) Drying and wetting of Mediterranean soils stimulates decomposition and carbon dioxide emission: the “Birch effect.” Tree Physiol 27(7):929–940. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/27.7.929
Jia X, Zha TS, Wu B, Zhang YQ, Gong JN, Qin SG, Chen GP, Qian D, Kellomaki S, Peltola H (2014) Biophysical controls on net ecosystem CO2 exchange over a semiarid shrubland in northwest China. Biogeosciences 11(17):4679–4693. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-11-4679-2014
Kaimal JC, Finnigan JJ (1994) AtmospHeric boundary layer flows: their structure and measurement. Oxford University Press, New York
Li BF, Chen YN, Shi X (2012) Why does the temperature rise faster in the arid region of northwest China? J Geophys Res-Atmos 117:7. https://doi.org/10.1029/2012jd017953
Li LH, Chen X, van der Tol C, Luo GP, Su ZB (2014) Growing season net ecosystem CO2 exchange of two desert ecosystems with alkaline soils in Kazakhstan. Ecol Evol 4(1):14–26. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.910
Li CF, Zhang C, Luo GP, Chen X, Maisupova B, Madaminov AA, Han QF, Djenbaev BM (2015) Carbon stock and its responses to climate change in Central Asia. Glob Change Biol 21(5):1951–1967. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12846
Li GY, Han HY, Du Y, Hui DF, Xia JY, Niu SL, Li XN, Wan SQ (2017) Effects of warming and increased precipitation on net ecosystem productivity: a long-term manipulative experiment in a semiarid grassland. Agric for Meteorol 232:359–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2016.09.004
Li BW, Wang Q, Lü WW, Zhou Y, Jiang LL, Liu PP, Meng FD, Zhang LR, Zhang SR, A W, Li YM, Tsechoe DJ, Wang SP, (2021) The effects of warming and added water on key processes of grassland carbon cycle. Acta Ecol Sin 41(4):1668–1679
Liu R, Li Y, Wang QX (2012a) Variations in water and CO2 fluxes over a saline desert in western China. Hydrol Process 26(4):513–522. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.8147
Liu R, Pan LP, Jenerette GD, Wang QX, Cieraad E, Li Y (2012b) High efficiency in water use and carbon gain in a wet year for a desert halophyte community. Agric for Meteorol 162:127–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2012.04.015
Liu R, Cieraad E, Li Y (2013) Summer rain pulses may stimulate a CO2 release rather than absorption in desert halophyte communities. Plant Soil 373(1–2):799–811. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-013-1839-1
Liu WJ, Li LF, Biederman JA, Hao YB, Zhang H, Kang XM, Cui XY, Wang YF, Li MW, Xu ZH, Griffin KL, Xu CY (2017) Repackaging precipitation into fewer, larger storms reduces ecosystem exchanges of CO2 and H2O in a semiarid steppe. Agric for Meteorol 247:356–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2017.08.029
Ma N, Wang NA, Zhu JF, Chen XL, Chen HB, Dong CY (2011a) Climate change around the Badain Jaran Desert in recent 50 Years. J Desert Res 31(6):1541–1547
Ma N, Wang N, Li Z, Chen X, Zhu J, Dong C (2011b) Analysis on climate change in the northern and southern marginal zones of the Badain Jaran Desert during the period 1960–2009. Arid Zone Res 28:242–250
Ma N, Wang NA, Zhao LQ, Zhang ZY, Dong CY, Shen SP (2014) Observation of mega-dune evaporation after various rain events in the hinterland of Badain Jaran Desert, China. Chin Sci Bull 59(2):162–170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11434-013-0050-3
Midgley GF, Aranibar JN, Mantlana KB, Macko S (2004) Photosynthetic and gas exchange characteristics of dominant woody plants on a moisture gradient in an African savanna. Glob Change Biol 10(3):309–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2003.00696.x
Milly PCD, Dunne KA (2016) Potential evapotranspiration and continental drying. Nat Clim Chang 6(10):946–949. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate3046
Monteith JL, Unsworth MH (1990) Principles of environmental physics, seconded. Edward Arnold, London
Moore CJ (1986) Frequency response corrections for eddy correlation systems. Bound-Layer Meteor 37(1–2):17–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00122754
Niu ZM, Wang NA, Meng N, Liu J, liang XR, Wen PH, Yu XR, Zhang WJ, Liang XY (2021) Contribution of Lake-Dune patterning to the dune height of mega-dunes in the Badain Jaran Sand Sea, Northern China. Remote Sens (13). https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13234915
Nyantakyi-Frimpong H, Bezner-Kerr R (2015) The relative importance of climate change in the context of multiple stressors in semi-arid Ghana. Glob Environ Chang 32:40–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.03.003
Potts DL, Huxman TE, Enquist BJ, Weltzin JF, Williams DG (2006) Resilience and resistance of ecosystem functional response to a precipitation pulse in a semi-arid grassland. J Ecol 94(1):23–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2005.01060.x
Poulter B, Frank D, Ciais P, Myneni RB, Andela N, Bi J, Broquet G, Canadell JG, Chevallier F, Liu YY, Running SW, Sitch S, van der Werf GR (2014) Contribution of semi-arid ecosystems to interannual variability of the global carbon cycle. Nature 509(7502):600–603. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13376
Rannik U, Vesala T (1999) Autoregressive filtering versus linear detrending in estimation of fluxes by the eddy covariance method. Bound-Layer Meteor 91(2):259–280. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1001840416858
Reichstein M, Falge E, Baldocchi D, Papale D, Aubinet M, Berbigier P, Bernhofer C, Buchmann N, Gilmanov T, Granier A, Grunwald T, Havrankova K, Ilvesniemi H, Janous D, Knohl A, Laurila T, Lohila A, Loustau D, Matteucci G, Meyers T, Miglietta F, Ourcival JM, Pumpanen J, Rambal S, Rotenberg E, Sanz M, Tenhunen J, Seufert G, Vaccari F, Vesala T, Yakir D, Valentini R (2005) On the separation of net ecosystem exchange into assimilation and ecosystem respiration: review and improved algorithm. Glob Change Biol 11(9):1424–1439. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2005.001002.x
Reynolds JF, Kemp PR, Ogle K, Fernandez RJ (2004) Modifying the ‘pulse-reserve’ paradigm for deserts of North America: precipitation pulses, soil water, and plant responses. Oecologia 141(2):194–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-004-1524-4
Richardson AD, Hollinger DY, Aber JD, Ollinger SV, Braswell BH (2007) Environmental variation is directly responsible for short- but not long-term variation in forest-atmosphere carbon exchange. Global Change Biol 13(4):788–803. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01330.x
Sala OE, Lauenroth WK (1982) Small rainfall events: an ecological role in semiarid regions. Oecologia 53(3):301–304. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00389004
Schotanus P, Nieuwstadt FTM, Debruin HAR (1983) Temperature measurement with a sonic anemometer and its application to heat and moisture fluxes. Bound-Layer Meteor 26(1):81–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00164332
Schwalm CR, Williams CA, Schaefer K, Baldocchi D, Black TA, Goldstein AH, Law BE, Oechel WC, Kyaw TPU, Scott RL (2012) Reduction in carbon uptake during turn of the century drought in western North America. Nat Geosci 5(8):551–556. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1529
Schwinning S, Sala OE (2004) Hierarchy of responses to resource pulses in and semi-arid ecosystems. Oecologia 141(2):211–220. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-004-1520-8
Shi YF, Shen YP, Li DL, Zang GW, Ding YJ, Hu RJ, Kang ES (2003) Discussion on the present climate change from warm-dry to warm-wet in Northwest China. Quat Sci 23 (2). https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1001-7410.2003.02.005
Stone R (2008) Ecosystems - have desert researchers discovered a hidden loop in the carbon cycle? Science 320(5882):1409–1410. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.320.5882.1409
Tans PP, Fung IY, Takahashi T (1990) Observational constraints on the global atmospheric CO2 budget. Science 247(4949):1431–1438. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.247.4949.1431
Tschinkel, Heinrich M (1963) Short-term fluctuation in streamflow as related to evaporation and transpiration. J Geophys Res-Atmos 68(24):6459-6469. https://doi.org/10.1029/JZ068i024p06459
Vickers D, Mahrt L (1997) Quality control and flux sampling problems for tower and aircraft data. J Atmos Ocean Technol 14(3):512–526. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1997)014<0512:Qcafsp>2.0.Co;2
Wang C, Wang XB, Liu DW, Wu HH, Lu XT, Fang YT, Cheng WX, Luo WT, Jiang P, Shi JS, Yin HQ, Zhou JZ, Han XG, Bai E (2014) Aridity threshold in controlling ecosystem nitrogen cycling in arid and semi-arid grasslands. Nat Commun 5:8. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms5799
Wang M, Dong ZB, Luo WY, Lu JF, Li JY (2015) Spatial variability of vegetation characteristics, soil properties and their relationships in and around China's Badain Jaran Desert. Environ Earth Sci 74(9):6847–6858. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-4685-z
Wang NA, Ning K, Li ZL, Wang YX, Jia P, Ma L (2016) Holocene high lake-levels and pan-lake period on Badain Jaran Desert. Sci China-Earth Sci 59(8):1633–1641. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-016-5307-7
Wang YH, Chen JQ, Zhou GS, Shao CL, Chen J, Wang Y, Song JM (2018) Predominance of precipitation event controls ecosystem CO2 exchange in an Inner Mongolian desert grassland, China. J Clean Prod 197:781–793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.06.107
Webb EK, Pearman GI, Leuning R (1980) Correction of flux measurements for density effects due to heat and water vapour transfer. Q J R Meteorol Soc 106(447):85–100. https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710644707
Williams CA, Hanan N, Scholes RJ, Kutsch W (2009) Complexity in water and carbon dioxide fluxes following rain pulses in an African savanna. 161(3):469-480. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-009-1405-y
Wilson K, Goldstein A, Falge E, Aubinet M, Baldocchi D, Berbigier P, Bernhofer C, Ceulemans R, Dolman H, Field C, Grelle A, Ibrom A, Law BE, Kowalski A, Meyers T, Moncrieff J, Monson R, Oechel W, Tenhunen J, Valentini R, Verma S (2002) Energy balance closure at FLUXNET sites. Agric for Meteorol 113(1–4):223–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0168-1923(02)00109-0
Wu P, Ding YH, Liu YJ, Li XC (2019) The characteristics of moisture recycling and its impact on regional precipitation against the background of climate warming over Northwest China. Int J Climatol 39(14):5241–5255. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.6136
Xu LK, Baldocchi DD (2004) Seasonal variation in carbon dioxide exchange over a Mediterranean annual grassland in California. Agric for Meteorol 123(1–2):79–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2003.10.004
Yang F, Huang JP, He Q, Zheng XQ, Zhou CL, Pan HL, Huo W, Yu HP, Liu XY, Meng L, Han DL, Ali M, Yang XH (2020a) Impact of differences in soil temperature on the desert carbon sink. Geoderma 379:10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2020.114636
Yang JF, Duan YM, Wang LL, Kang D, Awasthi MK, Li HK, Zhang LS (2020b) Seasonal variation of net ecosystem CO2 exchange and its influencing factors in an apple orchard in the Loess Plateau. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27(35):43452–43465. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08526-5
Yu XR (2020) Research on water level dynamic characteristics and water recharge sources of the lake area in the Badain Jaran Desert. Lanzhou university. China: Lanzhou
Zhang R, Zhao XY, Zuo XA, Qu H, Degen AA, Luo YY, Ma XJ, Chen M, Liu LX, Chen JL (2019) Impacts of precipitation on ecosystem carbon fluxes in desert-grasslands in Inner Mongolia. China J Geophys Res-Atmos 124(3):1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018jd028419
Zhang R, Zhao XY, Zuo XA, Degen AA, Li YL, Liu XP, Luo YY, Qu H, Lian J, Wang RX (2020) Drought-induced shift from a carbon sink to a carbon source in the grasslands of Inner Mongolia. China Catena 195:11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2020.104845
Zhang WJ (2020) Study on the evapotranspiration and water balance of lake basin in the hinterland of Badain Jaran Desert. Lanzhou university. China: Lanzhou
Zhou YY, Li XR, Gao YH, He MZ, Wang MM, Wang YL, Zhao LN, Li YF (2020) Carbon fluxes response of an artificial sand-binding vegetation system to rainfall variation during the growing season in the Tengger Desert. J Environ Manage 266:11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110556
Zhu JF, Wang NA, Chen HB, Dong CY, Zhang HA (2010) Study on the boundary and the area of Badain Jaran Desert based on remote sensing imagery. Prog Geogr 29(9):1087–1094
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the funding from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 41871021) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (lzujbky-2021-sp16).
Funding
This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 41871021) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (lzujbky-2021-sp16).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
PY: conceptualization, investigation, writing — original draft, writing — review & editing. NAW: supervision, writing — review & editing. LQZ: supervision, writing — review & editing. BJS: supervision, writing — review & editing. ZMN: investigation, writing — review & editing. HZ: investigation, writing — review & editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Zhihong Xu
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Yang, P., Wang, N., Zhao, L. et al. Responses of grassland ecosystem carbon fluxes to precipitation and their environmental factors in the Badain Jaran Desert. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29, 75805–75821 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-21098-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-21098-w