Abstract
Metals, arsenic, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have all been linked to respiratory diseases. Chronic bronchitis, which is a form of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), is a major public health concern and source of morbidity and mortality in the US. The purpose of this study was to analyze the correlation of 14 urinary metals (antimony, barium, cadmium, cesium, cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, strontium, thallium, tin, tungsten, uranium), seven species of arsenic, and seven forms of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations and chronic bronchitis in the US population. A cross-sectional analysis using three datasets from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) between 2011 and 2016 in adults, aged 20 years and older. Chronic bronchitis was determined using a self-questionnaire from the NHANES dataset. A specialized weighted complex survey design analysis package was used to analyze NHANES data. Multivariate logistic regression models were used to determine the correlation between urinary metals, arsenic, PAHs, and chronic bronchitis. Models were adjusted for lifestyle and demographic factors. A total of 4186 participants were analyzed; 49.8% were female and 40.5% were non-Hispanic White. All seven types of PAHs showed a positive association with chronic bronchitis (1-hydroxynaphthalene odds ratio (OR): 1.559, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.271–1.912; 2-hydroxynaphthalene OR: 2.498, 95% CI: 1.524–4.095; 3-hydroxyfluorene OR: 2.752, 95% CI: 2.100–3.608; 2-hydroxyfluorene OR: 3.461, 95% CI: 2.438–4.914; 1-hydroxyphenanthrene OR: 2.442, 95% CI: 1.515–3.937; 1-hydroxypyrene OR: 2.828, 95% CI: 1.728–4.629; 2 & 3-hydroxyphenanthrene OR: 3.690, 95% CI: 2.309–5.896). Of the metals, only urinary cadmium showed a statistically significant positive association (OR: 2.435, 95% CI: 1.401–4.235) with chronic bronchitis. No other metals or arsenic were correlated with chronic bronchitis. Seven forms of urinary PAHs, cadmium, and several demographic factors were associated with chronic bronchitis.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets analyzed during the current study are available in the NHANES repository provided by the CDC to the public.
References
Ali MK, Kim RY, Karim R et al (2017) Role of iron in the pathogenesis of respiratory disease. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 88:181–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocel.2017.05.003
Blanc PD, Torén K (2007) Occupation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and chronic bronchitis: an update. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 11(3):251–257
Błaszczyk E, Rogula-Kozłowska W, Klejnowski K, Fulara I, Mielżyńska-Švach D (2017) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons bound to outdoor and indoor airborne particles (PM2.5) and their mutagenicity and carcinogenicity in Silesian kindergartens, Poland. Air Qual Atmos Health 10(3):389–400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-016-0457-5
Briffa J, Sinagra E, Blundell R (2020) Heavy metal pollution in the environment and their toxicological effects on humans. Heliyon 6(9):e04691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04691
Borgoño JM, Vicent P, Venturino H, Infante A (1977) Arsenic in the drinking water of the city of Antofagasta: epidemiological and clinical study before and after the installation of a treatment plant. Environ Health Perspect 19:103–105. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.19-1637404
Cakmak S, Hebbern C, Cakmak JD, Dales RE (2017) The influence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on lung function in a representative sample of the Canadian population. Environ Pollut 228:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.05.013
Cao X, Lin H, Muskhelishvili L, Latendresse J, Richter P, Heflich RH (2015) Tight junction disruption by cadmium in an in vitro human airway tissue model. Respir Res 16(1):30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12931-015-0191-9
CDC/National Center for Health Statistics (2021). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) includes: chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/copd.htm. Accessed 10 December 2021
CDC (2013a) Medical Conditions (MCQ_G). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2011-2012/MCQ_G.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2013b) Metals - Urine (UHM_G). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2011-2012/UHM_G.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2013c) Mercury - Inorganic, Urine (UHG_G). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2011-2012/UHG_G.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2013d) Arsenics - Total & Speciated - Urine (UAS_G). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2011-2012/UAS_G.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2014) Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) - Urine (PAH_G). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2011-2012/PAH_G.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2015) Medical Conditions (MCQ_H). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2013-2014/MCQ_H.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2016a) Metals - Urine (UM_H). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2013-2014/UM_H.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2016b) Mercury - Urine (UHG_H). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2013-2014/UHG_H.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2016c) Arsenic - Total - Urine (UTAS_H). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2013-2014/UTAS_H.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2016d) Arsenics - Speciated - Urine (UAS_H). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2013-2014/UAS_H.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2016e) Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) - Urine (PAH_H). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2013-2014/PAH_H.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2017a) Medical Conditions (MCQ_I). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2015-2016/MCQ_I.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2017b) Albumin & Creatinine - Urine (ALB_CR_I). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2015-2016/ALB_CR_I.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2017c) Body Measures (BMX_I). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2015-2016/BMX_I.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2017d) Demographic Variables and Sample Weights (DEMO_I). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2015-2016/DEMO_I.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2018a) Metals - Urine (UM_I). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2015-2016/UM_I.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2018b) Mercury - Urine (UHG_I). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2015-2016/UHG_I.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2018c) Arsenic - Total - Urine (UTAS_I). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2015-2016/UTAS_I.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2018d) Speciated Arsenics - Urine (UAS_I). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2015-2016/UAS_I.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2018e) Alcohol Use (ALQ_I). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2015-2016/ALQ_I.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2018f) MEC Laboratory Procedures Manual. National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhanes/2015-2016/manuals/2016_MEC_Laboratory_Procedures_Manual.pdf. Accessed 12 March 2022
CDC (2019) Cotinine and Hydroxycotinine - Serum (COT_I). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2015-2016/COT_I.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2020a) About Adult BMI. https://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/adult_bmi/index.html#trends. Accessed 12 December 2021
CDC (2020b) Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) - Urine (PAH_I). National Center for Health Statistics. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2015-2016/PAH_I.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
Chakraborti D, Rahman MM, Paul K et al (2002) Arsenic calamity in the Indian subcontinent: what lessons have been learned? Talanta 58(1):3–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0039-9140(02)00270-9
Choudhury S, Gupta P, Ghosh S, Mukherjee S, Chakraborty P, Chatterji U et al (2016) Arsenic-induced dose-dependent modulation of the NF-κB/IL-6 axis in thymocytes triggers differential immune responses. Toxicology 357–358:85–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2016.06.005
Cohen MD (2004) Pulmonary immunotoxicology of select metals: aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, manganese, nickel, vanadium, and zinc. J Immunotoxicol 1(1):39–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/15476910490438360
Dominici M, Le Blanc K, Mueller I et al (2006) Minimal criteria for defining multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells. The International Society for Cellular Therapy position statement. Cytotherapy 8(4):315–317. https://doi.org/10.1080/14653240600855905
Drasch G, Schöpfer J, Schrauzer GN (2005) Selenium/cadmium ratios in human prostates: indicators of prostate cancer risk of smokers and nonsmokers, and relevance to the cancer protective effects of selenium. Biol Trace Elem Res 103(2):103–107. https://doi.org/10.1385/BTER:103:2:103
Eisner MD, Anthonisen N, Coultas D et al (2010) An official American thoracic society public policy statement: novel risk factors and the global burden of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 182(5):693–718. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200811-1757ST
Ellison-Loschmann L, Sunyer J, Plana E et al (2007) Socioeconomic status, asthma and chronic bronchitis in a large community-based study. Eur Respir J 29(5):897–905. https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00101606
Farzan SF, Chen Y, Trachtman H, Trasande L (2016) Urinary polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and measures of oxidative stress, inflammation and renal function in adolescents: NHANES 2003–2008. Environ Res 144(Pt A):149–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2015.11.012
Ganguly K, Levänen B, Palmberg L, Åkesson A, Lindén A (2018) Cadmium in tobacco smokers: a neglected link to lung disease? Eur Respir Rev 27(147):170122. https://doi.org/10.1183/16000617.0122-2017
GOLD (2021) Global strategy for the diagnosis, management and prevention of chronic obstructive lung disease: 2022 report. Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD). https://goldcopd.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/GOLD-REPORT-2022-v1.1-22Nov2021_WMV.pdf. Accessed 10 December 2021.
Grasseschi RM, Ramaswamy RB, Levine DJ, Klaassen CD, Wesselius LJ (2003) Cadmium accumulation and detoxification by alveolar macrophages of cigarette smokers. Chest 124(5):1924–1928. https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.124.5.1924
Guerra S, Sherrill DL, Bobadilla A, Martinez FD, Barbee RA (2002) The relation of body mass index to asthma, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema. Chest 122(4):1256–1263. https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.122.4.1256
Guha Mazumder DN (2008) Chronic arsenic toxicity & human health. Indian J Med Res 128(4):436–447
Guha Mazumder DN, Das Gupta J, Santra A, Pal A, Ghose A, Sarkar S (1998) Chronic arsenic toxicity in West Bengal - The worst calamity in the world. J Indian Med Assoc 96:4–7
Hamon R, Homan CC, Tran HB et al (2014) Zinc and zinc transporters in macrophages and their roles in efferocytosis in COPD. PLoS One 9(10):e110056. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0110056
IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans [IARC] (1993) Beryllium, cadmium, mercury, and exposures in the glass manufacturing industry. Working Group views and expert opinions, Lyon, 9-16 February 1993. IARC MonogrEval Carcinog Risks Hum 58:1-415
IARC Working group on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans [IARC] (2012) Arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts. IARC MonogrEval Carcinog Risks Hum 100(Pt C):11-465
Jiang YL, Fei J, Cao P et al (2022) Serum cadmium positively correlates with inflammatory cytokines in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Environ Toxicol 37(1):151–160. https://doi.org/10.1002/tox.23386
Kataria A, Trasande L, Trachtman H (2015) The effects of environmental chemicals on renal function. Nat Rev Nephrol 11(10):610–625. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneph.2015.94
Kim V, Criner GJ (2013) Chronic bronchitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 187(3):228–237. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201210-1843CI
Kim V, Criner GJ (2015) The chronic bronchitis phenotype in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: features and implications. Curr Opin Pulm Med 21(2):133–141. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCP.0000000000000145
Kim V, Davey A, Comellas AP et al (2014) Clinical and computed tomographic predictors of chronic bronchitis in COPD: a cross sectional analysis of the COPDGene study. Respir Res 15(1):52. https://doi.org/10.1186/1465-9921-15-52
Koller LD (1998) Cadmium. In: Zelikoff JT, Thomas PT (eds) Immunotoxicology of environmental and occupational metals. Taylor and Francis, London, UK, pp 41–61
Låg M, Rodionov D, Ovrevik J, Bakke O, Schwarze PE, Refsnes M (2010) Cadmium-induced inflammatory responses in cells relevant for lung toxicity: expression and release of cytokines in fibroblasts, epithelial cells and macrophages. Toxicol Lett 193(3):252–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2010.01.015
Lahousse L, Seys LJM, Joos GF, Franco OH, Stricker BH, Brusselle GG (2017) Epidemiology and impact of chronic bronchitis in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J 50(2):1602470. https://doi.org/10.1183/13993003.02470-2016
Lamprecht B, Soriano JB, Studnicka M et al (2015) Determinants of underdiagnosis of COPD in national and international surveys. Chest 148(4):971–985. https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.14-2535
Lantz RC, Chau B, Sarihan P, Witten ML, Pivniouk VI, Chen GJ (2009) In utero and postnatal exposure to arsenic alters pulmonary structure and function. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 235(1):105–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2008.11.012
Lee DH, Jacobs DR (2009a) Is serum gamma-glutamyltransferase an exposure marker of xenobiotics? Empirical evidence with polycylic aromatic hydrocarbon. Clin Chem Lab Med 47(7):860–862. https://doi.org/10.1515/CCLM.2009.197
Lee DH, Jacobs DR Jr (2009b) Is serum gamma-glutamyltransferase a marker of exposure to various environmental pollutants? Free Radic Res 43(6):533–537. https://doi.org/10.1080/10715760902893324
Lee YJ, Kim JK, Lee JH, Lee HR, Kang DR, Shim JY (2008) Association of serum gamma-glutamyltransferase with C-reactive protein levels and white blood cell count in Korean adults. Clin Chem Lab Med 46(10):1410–1415. https://doi.org/10.1515/CCLM.2008.280
Lewis GP, Lyle H, Miller S (1969) Association between elevated hepatic water-soluble protein-bound cadmium levels and chronic bronchitis and/or emphysema. The Lancet 294(7634):1330–1333. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(69)90866-6
Liu J, Man R, Ma S, Li J, Wu Q, Peng J (2015) Atmospheric levels and health risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) bound to PM2.5 in Guangzhou, China. Mar Pollut Bull 100(1):134–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.09.014
Lumley T (2004) Analysis of complex survey samples. J Stat Softw 9(8) https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v009.i08.
Lumley T (2020) Package ‘survey’: analysis of complex survey samples, version 4.0. https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/survey/survey.pdf. Accessed 12 December 2021
Lumley TS (2010) Complex surveys: a guide to analysis using R. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken
Mannino DM, Holguin F, Greves HM, Savage-Brown A, Stock AL, Jones RL (2004) Urinary cadmium levels predict lower lung function in current and former smokers: data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Thorax 59(3):194–198. https://doi.org/10.1136/thorax.2003.012054
Martinez CH, Kim V, Chen Y et al (2014) The clinical impact of non-obstructive chronic bronchitis in current and former smokers. Respir Med 108(3):491–499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2013.11.003
Menezes AM, Victora CG, Rigatto M (1994) Prevalence and risk factors for chronic bronchitis in Pelotas, RS, Brazil: a population-based study. Thorax 49(12):1217–1221. https://doi.org/10.1136/thx.49.12.1217
Miller KA, Siscovick DS, Sheppard L et al (2007) Long-term exposure to air pollution and incidence of cardiovascular events in women. N Engl J Med 356(5):447–458. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa054409
Mirza S, Clay RD, Koslow MA, Scanlon PD (2018) COPD guidelines: a review of the 2018 GOLD report. Mayo Clin Proc 93(10):1488–1502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2018.05.026
National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) (2017a) About the national health and nutrition examination survey. CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/about_nhanes.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) (2017b) NCHS Research Ethics Review Board (ERB) Approval. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/irba98.htm. Accessed 12 December 2021
Ni H, Xu J (2016) COPD-related mortality by sex and race among adults aged 25 and over: United States, 2000–2014. NCHS Data Brief 256:1–8
Olsen CE, Liguori AE, Zong Y, Lantz RC, Burgess JL, Boitano S (2008) Arsenic upregulates MMP-9 and inhibits wound repair in human airway epithelial cells. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 295(2):L293-302. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplung.00134
Perez-Padilla R, Schilmann A, Riojas-Rodriguez H (2010) Respiratory health effects of indoor air pollution. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 14(9):1079–1086
Pérez-Rubio G, Falfán-Valencia R, Fernández-López JC et al (2021) Genetic factors associated with COPD depend on the ancestral Caucasian/Amerindian component in the Mexican population. Diagnostics (Basel) 11(4):599. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics11040599
Pirkle JL (2018a) Laboratory procedure manual: antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium, cadmium, cesium, cobalt, lead, manganese, molybdenum, platinum, strontium, thallium, tin, tungsten, and uranium. National Center for Environmental Health. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhanes/2015-2016/labmethods/UTAS_UTASS_UM_UMS_I_MET.PDF. Accessed 12 March 2022.
Pirkle JK (2018b) Laboratory procedure manual: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). National Center for Environmental Health. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhanes/2015-2016/labmethods/PAH-I-PAHS-I-MET-508.pdf. Accessed 12 March 2022.
Pope CA 3rd (2000) Epidemiology of fine particulate air pollution and human health: biologic mechanisms and who’s at risk? Environ Health Perspect 108(Suppl 4):713–723. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.108-1637679
R Core Team (2020) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna https://www.R-project.org/. Accessed 21 December 2021
Rahman HH, Niemann D, Munson-McGee SH (2022a) Association among urinary polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and depression: a cross-sectional study from NHANES 2015–2016. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 29(9):13089–13097. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16692-3
Rahman HH, Niemann D, Munson-McGee SH (2021) Association of chronic kidney disease with exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the US population [published online ahead of print, 2021 Nov 25]. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-17479-2
Rahman HH, Niemann D, Munson-McGee SH (2022b) Environmental exposure to metals and the risk of high blood pressure: a cross-sectional study from NHANES 2015–2016. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 29(1):531–542. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15726-0
Rahman HH, Niemann D, Munson-McGee SH (2021b) Association of environmental toxic metals with high sensitivity C-reactive protein: a cross-sectional study. Occup Dis Environ Med 9(4):173–184. https://doi.org/10.4236/odem.2021.94013
Rahman HH, Niemann D, Munson-McGee SH (2021) Association of albumin to creatinine ratio with urinary arsenic and metal exposure: evidence from NHANES 2015–2016 [published online ahead of print, 2021 Oct 13]. Int Urol Nephrol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11255-021-03018-y
Rahman HH, Niemann D, Singh D (2020a) Arsenic exposure and association with hepatitis E IgG antibodies. Occup Dis Environ Med 8:111–122. https://doi.org/10.4236/odem.2020.83009
Rahman HH, Niemann D, Yusuf KK (2022c) Association of urinary arsenic and sleep disorder in the US population: NHANES 2015–2016. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 29(4):5496–5504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16085-6
Rahman HH, Yusuf KK, Niemann D, Dipon SR (2020b) Urinary speciated arsenic and depression among US adults. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 27(18):23048–23053. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08858-2
Richter P, Faroon O, Pappas RS (2017) Cadmium and cadmium/zinc ratios and tobacco-related morbidities. Int J Environ Res Public Health 14(10):1154. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101154
Sanchez TR, Powers M, Perzanowski M, George CM, Graziano JH, Navas-Acien A (2018) A meta-analysis of arsenic exposure and lung function: is there evidence of restrictive or obstructive lung disease? Curr Environ Health Rep 5(2):244–254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-018-0192-1
Sarigiannis DA, Salifoglou A (2016) Research directives toward deciphering adverse outcome pathways induced by environmental metallotoxins. Curr Opin Chem Eng 13:161–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coche.2016.09.010
Schwartz J (2001) Air pollution and blood markers of cardiovascular risk. Environ Health Perspect 109(Suppl 3):405–409. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.01109s3405
Selman M, Pardo A (2012) Alveolar epithelial cell disintegrity and subsequent activation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 186(2):119–121. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201206-0997ED
Shakir SK, Azizullah A, Murad W et al (2017) Toxic metal pollution in Pakistan and its possible risks to public health. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 242:1–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/398_2016_9
Shin YH, Kim KE, Kim KE, Lee YJ (2015) Relationship between serum γ-glutamyltransferase level and leukocyte count in Korean children and adolescents. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 75(2):177–182. https://doi.org/10.3109/00365513.2014.993693
Shiue I (2015) Urinary heavy metals, phthalates and polyaromatic hydrocarbons independent of health events are associated with adult depression: USA NHANES, 2011–2012. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4944-2
Shiue I (2016) Urinary polyaromatic hydrocarbons are associated with adult emphysema, chronic bronchitis, asthma, and infections: US NHANES, 2011–2012. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 23(24):25494–25500. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7867-7
Skalny AV, Lima TRR, Ke T et al (2020) Toxic metal exposure as a possible risk factor for COVID-19 and other respiratory infectious diseases [published correction appears in Food Chem Toxicol. 2021 Mar;149:111999]. Food Chem Toxicol 146:111809. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2020.111809
Smith AH, Marshall G, Yuan Y et al (2006) Increased mortality from lung cancer and bronchiectasis in young adults after exposure to arsenic in utero and in early childhood. Environ Health Perspect 114(8):1293–1296. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.8832
Smith AH, Ercumen A, Yuan Y, Steinmaus CM (2009) Increased lung cancer risks are similar whether arsenic is ingested or inhaled. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 19(4):343–348. https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2008.73
Stallings-Smith S, Mease A, Johnson TM, Arikawa AY (2018) Exploring the association between polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and diabetes among adults in the United States. Environ Res 166:588–594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2018.06.041
Susmann H (2016) Package ‘RNHANES’: “facilitates analysis of CDC NHANES,” version 1.1.0. https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/RNHANES/RNHANES.pdf. Accessed 12 December 2021
Vogelmeier CF, Criner GJ, Martinez FJ et al (2017) Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive lung disease 2017 report. GOLD Executive Summary. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 195(5):557–582. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201701-0218PP
Wang C, Wei Z, Han Z et al (2019a) Neutrophil extracellular traps promote cadmium chloride-induced lung injury in mice. Environ Pollut 254(Pt A):113021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113021
Wang CK, Lee HL, Chang H, Tsai MH, Kuo YC, Lin P (2012) Enhancement between environmental tobacco smoke and arsenic on emphysema-like lesions in mice. J Hazard Mater 221–222:256–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.04.042
Wang L, Hou J, Hu C et al (2019b) Mediating factors explaining the associations between polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons exposure, low socioeconomic status and diabetes: a structural equation modeling approach. Sci Total Environ 648:1476–1483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.255
Wiwatanadate P, Liwsrisakun C (2011) Acute effects of air pollution on peak expiratory flow rates and symptoms among asthmatic patients in Chiang Mai, Thailand. Int J Hyg Environ Health 214(3):251–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2011.03.003
Yang G, Sun T, Han YY et al (2019) Serum cadmium and lead, current wheeze, and lung function in a nationwide study of adults in the United States. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 7(8):2653-2660.e3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2019.05.029
Yin P, Zhang M, Li Y, Jiang Y, Zhao W (2011) Prevalence of COPD and its association with socioeconomic status in China: findings from China chronic disease risk factor surveillance 2007. BMC Public Health 11:586. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-586
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Humairat H. Rahman conceptualized the study and contributed to the introduction and discussion. Stuart Munson-McGee conducted the data analysis and contributed to the drafting of the paper. Danielle Niemann contributed to the drafting of the paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable. This study uses only secondary data analyses without any personal information identified using statistical data from the NHANES website, no further ethical approval for conducting the present study is required.
Consent to participate
Consent was given by all the authors.
Consent for publication
Consent was given by all the authors.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Lotfi Aleya
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Rahman, H.H., Niemann, D. & Munson-McGee, S.H. Urinary metals, arsenic, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposure and risk of chronic bronchitis in the US adult population. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29, 73480–73491 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20982-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20982-9