Abstract
China’s agriculture is dominated by smallholder farms, which have become major sources of negative environmental impacts including eutrophication, formation of haze, soil acidification and greenhouse gas emissions. To mitigate these environmental impacts, new farming models including family farming, cooperation farming and industrial farming have emerged in recent years. However, whether these new farming practices would improve the economic and environmental performance as compared to the current smallholder farming has yet to be verified on ground level. In this paper, by using pilot farming cases within the watershed of Tai Lake, we found that alternative farming models produced 7% more crop yield, while using 8% less fertilizer, leading to a 28% decrease in pollutant emission per hectare. These alternative farming models have a 17% higher fertilizer use efficiency and 50% higher profit per hectare. Compared to smallholder farming, these alternative farming practices invest 27% more resources into agricultural facilities, including advanced machinery, and have a younger, better educated labor force as a consequence of a larger farm size and more specialization. These input changes substantially increase fertilizer use efficiency and reduce agricultural pollution. Policy arrangements to support and facilitate the uptake of these farming models will further promote the green development and sustainable intensification of agricultural production.
Graphical abstract
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adamopoulos T, Restuccia D (2014) The size distribution of farms and international productivity differences. Am Econ Rev 104:1667–1697. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.104.6.1667
Chen X, Cui Z, Fan M, Vitousek P, Zhao M, Ma W, Wang Z, Zhang W, Yan X, Yang J, Deng X, Gao Q, Zhang Q, Guo S, Ren J, Li S, Ye Y, Wang Z, Huang J et al (2014) Producing more grain with lower environmental costs. Nature 514:486–489. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13609
Cui Z, Zhang H, Chen X, Zhang C, Ma W, Huang C, Zhang W, Mi G, Miao Y, Li X (2018) Pursuing sustainable productivity with millions of smallholder farmers. Nature 555:363–366. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature25785
Du Z, Liu W (2017) Dual subjective status of family farm on its management and service. Theoretical Investigation 195:80–85
Ebenstein A (2012) The consequences of industrialization: evidence from water pollution and digestive cancers in China. Review of Economics & Statistics 94:186–201. https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00150
Fan L, Yuan Y, Ying Z, Lam SK, Liu L, Zhang X, Liu H, Gu B (2019) Decreasing farm number benefits the mitigation of agricultural non-point source pollution in China. Environ Sci Pollut R 26:464–472. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-3622-6
FAO (2020) FAOSTAT: FAO statistical databases. Rome, Italy
Gu B, Ge Y, Chang SX, Luo W, Chang J (2013) Nitrate in groundwater of China: sources and driving forces. Global Environ Chang. 23:1112–1121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.05.004
Gu B, Ge Y, Ren Y, Xu B, Luo W, Jiang H, Gu B, Chang J (2012) Atmospheric reactive nitrogen in China: sources, recent trends, and damage costs. Environ Sci Technol 46:9420–9427. https://doi.org/10.1021/es301446g
Gu B, Ju X, Chang J, Ge Y, Vitousek PM (2015) Integrated reactive nitrogen budgets and future trends in China. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 112:8792–8797. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1510211112
Gu B, Song Y, Yu C, Ju X (2020) Overcoming socioeconomic barriers to reduce agricultural ammonia emission in China. Environ Sci Pollut R 27:25813–25817. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09154-9
Gu B, van Grinsven HJM, Lam SK, Oenema O, Sutton MA, Mosier A, Chen D (2021) A credit system to solve agricultural nitrogen pollution. The Innovation 2:100079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xinn.2021.100079
Guo JH, Liu XJ, Zhang Y, Shen JL, Han WX, Zhang WF, Christie P, Goulding KWT, Vitousek PM, Zhang FS (2010) Significant acidification in major Chinese Croplands. Science 327:1008–1010. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1182570
Hu Y, Li B, Zhang Z, Wang J (2019) Farm size and agricultural technology progress: evidence from China. J Rural Stud: doi. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2019.01.009
Ju X, Gu B (2014) Status-quo, problem and trend of nitrogen fertilization in China. Journal of Plant Nutrition & Fertilizer 4:783–795 (in Chinese)
Ju X, Gu B, Wu Y, Galloway JN (2016) Reducing China’s fertilizer use by increasing farm size. Global Environ Chang. 41:26–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.08.005
Ju X, Xing G, Chen X, Zhang S, Zhang L, Liu X, Cui Z, Yin B, Christie P, Zhu Z (2009) Reducing environmental risk by improving N management in intensive Chinese agricultural systems. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:3041–3046. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0813417106
Ke J, He R, Hou P, Ding C, Ding Y, Wang S, Liu Z, Tang S, Ding C, Chen L (2018) Combined controlled-released nitrogen fertilizers and deep placement effects of N leaching, rice yield and N recovery in machine-transplanted rice. Agri Eco Environ 265:402–412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.06.023
Lassaletta L, Billen G, Grizzetti B, Anglade J, Garnier J (2014) 50 year trends in nitrogen use efficiency of world cropping systems: the relationship between yield and nitrogen input to cropland. Environ Res Lett 105011:105011. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/9/10/105011
Li J, Rodriguez D, Tang X (2017) Effects of land lease policy on changes in land use, mechanization and agricultural pollution. Land Use Policy 64:405–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.03.008
Liu X, Sheng H, Jiang S, Yuan Z, Zhang C, Elser JJ (2016) Intensification of phosphorus cycling in China since the 1600s. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 113:2609–2614. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1519554113
Norse D, Ju X (2015) Environmental costs of China’s food security. Agri Eco Environ 209:5–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2015.02.014
Reardon T, Timmer CP (2014) Five inter-linked transformations in the Asian agrifood economy: food security implications. Global Food Security 3:108–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2014.02.001
Ren C, Jin S, Wu Y, Zhang B, Kanter D, Wu B, Xi X, Zhang X, Chen D, Xu J, Gu B (2021) Fertilizer overuse in Chinese smallholders due to lack of fixed inputs. J Environ Manage 293:112913. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112913
Ren C, Liu S, van Grinsven H, Reis S, Jin S, Liu H, Gu B (2019) The impact of farm size on agricultural sustainability. J Clean Prod 220:357–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.02.151
Waller BE, Hoy CW, Henderson JL, Stinner B, Welty C (1998) Matching innovations with potential users, a case study of potato IPM practices. Agr Ecosyst Environ 70:203–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(98)00149-2
Wang G (2015) Problems and suggestions for developing family farms. China State Finance: 64-66. (in Chinese)
Wang S, Bai X, Zhang X, Reis S, Chen D, Xu J, Gu B (2021) Urbanization can benefit agricultural production with large-scale farming in China. Nature Food 2:183–191. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00228-6
Wang X, Chen Y, Peng S, Peng Y, Yang X, Gao W (2017) Preliminary analysis on economic and environmental consequences of grain production on different farm sizes in North China Plain. Agr Syst 153:181–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2017.02.005
Wu Y, Xi X, Tang X, Luo D, Gu B, Lam SK, Vitousek PM, Chen D (2018) Policy distortions, farm size, and the overuse of agricultural chemicals in China. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 115:7010–7015. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1806645115
Yan J, Chen C, Hu B (2019) Farm size and production efficiency in Chinese agriculture: output and profit. China Agr Econ Rev 11:20–38. https://doi.org/10.1108/CAER-05-2018-0082
Ye J (2015) Land transfer and the pursuit of agricultural modernization in China. J Agrar Change 15:314–337. https://doi.org/10.1111/joac.12117
Yu G, Jia Y, He N, Zhu J, Chen Z, Wang Q, Piao S, Liu X, He H, Guo X, Wen Z, Li P, Ding G, Goulding K (2019) Stabilization of atmospheric nitrogen deposition in China over the past decade. Nat Geosci 12:424–429. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-019-0352-4
Zhang C, Ju X, Powlson D, Oenema O, Smith P (2019) Nitrogen surplus benchmarks for controlling N pollution in the main cropping systems of China. Environ Sci Technol 53:6678–6687. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b06383
Zhang W, Cao G, Li X, Zhang H, Wang C, Liu Q, Chen X, Cui Z, Shen J, Jiang R (2016) Closing yield gaps in China by empowering smallholder farmers. Nature 537:671–674. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature19368
Zhang X, Davidson EA, Mauzerall DL, Searchinger TD, Dumas P, Shen Y (2015) Managing nitrogen for sustainable development. Nature 528:51–59. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature15743
Zhong F (2016) Understanding issues regarding food security and rising labor costs. Issues in Agricultural Economy 35:4–9 (in Chinese)
Acknowledgements
We thank Shenghan Gao from The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology for the help on preliminary data analysis. The contributions of SR were supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) National Capability award Sustainable Use of Natural Resources to Improve Human Health and Support Economic Development (SUNRISE) (NE/R000131/1)/.
Availability of data and materials
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Funding
This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41822701, 41773068 and 42061124001), the National Key Research and Development Project of China (2018YFC0213300), the Major Science and Technology Program for Water Pollution Control and Treatment (2017ZX07401002).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Conceptualization: BG; methodology: YY; formal analysis and investigation: YY, YH; writing—original draft preparation: BG; writing—review and editing: SR; funding and resource acquisition: LY, BG.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Yu, Y., Hu, Y., Gu, B. et al. Reforming smallholder farms to mitigate agricultural pollution. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29, 13869–13880 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16610-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16610-7