Abstract
Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) has attracted growing attention recently for photodegradation of pollutants. However, the photosensitization performance of g-C3N4 was limited by insufficient generation efficiency of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and weak light absorption. In this study, platinum (Pt)–doped g-C3N4 photocatalyst was synthesized by thermal polycondensation using dicyandiamide and chloroplatinic acid. The structure and composition of Pt-doped g-C3N4 were tested by scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray diffractometer (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), which indicated that the Pt-doped g-C3N4 was successfully prepared. Compared with bare g-C3N4, Pt2+-doped g-C3N4 has wider light absorption range, lower band gap, and higher photon-generated carrier migration efficiency, which significantly improved the light absorption range and photosensitization efficiency of Pt2+-doped g-C3N4, while photodegradation efficiency for Rhodamine B (RhB) increased from 50 to 90%. The effecting factors of adsorption and photocatalytic degradation performance of Pt2+-doped g-C3N4 for RhB were investigated in detail. The adsorption is a monolayer adsorption process that fits the Langmuir model, as well as being a spontaneous endothermic process. Using a white LED as an excitation source, electrons and holes in Pt2+-doped g-C3N4 were generated. The electrons reacting with dissolved oxygen produce active oxygen species such as •OH and 1O2, which can degrade RhB on the surface of Pt2+-doped g-C3N4. The photocatalytic method has the advantages of simple operation, low cost, and high efficiency, and has the potential to directly remove dyes in wastewater utilizing sunlight.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bilski P, Reszka K, Bilska M, Chignell CF (1996) Oxidation of the spin trap 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide by singlet oxygen in aqueous solution. J Am Chem Soc 118:1330–1338. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja952140s
Butler MA (1977) Photoelectrolysis and physical-properties of semiconducting electrode WO3. J Appl Phys 48:1914–1920. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.323948
Chai B, Yan J, Wang C, Ren Z, Zhu Y (2017) Enhanced visible light photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B over phosphorus doped graphitic carbon nitride. Appl Surf Sci 391:376–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2016.06.180
Chan YJ, Chong MF, Law CL, Hassell DGJCEJ (2009) A review on anaerobic-aerobic treatment of industrial and municipal wastewater. Chem Eng J 155:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2009.06.041
Chen X, Mao SS (2007) Titanium dioxide nanomaterials: synthesis, properties, modifications, and applications. Chem Rev 107:2891–2959. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr0500535
Chen J, Xio X, Wang Y, Ye Z (2019) Ag nanoparticles decorated WO3/g-C3N4 2D/2D heterostructure with enhanced photocatalytic activity for organic pollutants degradation. Appl Surf Sci 467:1000–1010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.10.236
Cui AL, Feng GX, Zhao YF, Kou HZ, Li H, Zhu GH, Hwang HS, Oh HC, Kwon YJ, Lee DC (2009) Synthesis and separation of mellitic acid and graphite oxide colloid through electrochemical oxidation of graphite in deionized water. Electrochem Commun 11:409–412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elecom.2008.12.003
Ding X, Li Y, Li C, Wang W, Wang L, Feng L, Han D (2019) 2D visible-light-driven TiO2@Ti3C2/g-C3N4 ternary heterostructure for high photocatalytic activity. J Mater Sci 54:9385–9396. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-018-03289-4
Gao Y, Wang Y, Zhang H (2015) Removal of rhodamine B with Fe-supported bentonite as heterogeneous photo-Fenton catalyst under visible irradiation. Appl Catalysis B-Environ 178:29–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2014.11.005
Ge L, Han C, Liu J, Li Y (2011) Enhanced visible light photocatalytic activity of novel polymeric g-C3N4 loaded with Ag nanoparticles. Appl Catalysis a General 409:215–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcata.2011.10.006
Hameed BH (2009) Evaluation of papaya seeds as a novel non-conventional low-cost adsorbent for removal of methylene blue. J Hazard Mater 162:939–944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.05.120
Han KK, Wang CC, Li YY, Wan MM, Wang Y, Zhu JH (2013) Facile template-free synthesis of porous g-C3N4 with high photocatalytic performance under visible light. RSC Adv 3:9465–9469. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ra40765a
Hayyan M, Hashim MA, AlNashef IM (2016) Superoxide ion: generation and chemical implications. Chem Rev 116:3029–3085. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00407
Ide Y, Matsuoka M, Ogawa M (2010) Efficient visible-light-induced photocatalytic activity on gold-nanoparticle-supported layered titanate. J Am Chem Soc 132:16762–16764. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja1083514
Jiang JQ, Yang CX, Yan XP (2013) Zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 for fast adsorption and removal of benzotriazoles from aqueous solution. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 5:9837–9842. https://doi.org/10.1021/am403079n
Jin R, Hu S, Gui J, Liu D (2015) A convenient method to prepare novel rare earth metal Ce-doped carbon nitride with enhanced photocatalytic activity under visible light. Bull Kor Chem Soc 36:17–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/bkcs.10001
Josephy PD, Eling T, Mason RP (1982) The horseradish peroxidase-catalyzed oxidation of 3,5,3',5'-tetramethylbenzidine. Free radical and charge-transfer complex intermediates. J Bio Chem 257:3669–3675
Karakulski K, Gryta M, Morawski A (2002) Membrane processes used for potable water quality improvement. Desalination 145:315–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0011-9164(02)00429-0
Kellogg EW, Fridovich I (1975) Superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and singlet oxygen in lipid peroxidation by a xanthine oxidase system. J Biol Chem 250:8812–8817
Kroke E, Schwarz M (2004) Novel group 14 nitrides. Coord Chem Rev 248:493–532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2004.02.001
Kumari S, Chauhan GS, Ahn JH (2016) Novel cellulose nanowhiskers-based polyurethane foam for rapid and persistent removal of methylene blue from its aqueous solutions. Chem Eng J 304:728–736. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2016.07.008
Le S, Jiang T, Zhao Q, Liu X, Li Y, Fang B, Gong M (2016) Cu-doped mesoporous graphitic carbon nitride for enhanced visible-light driven photocatalysis. RSC Adv 6:38811–38819. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6ra03982k
Lei C, Pi M, Jiang C, Cheng B, Yu J (2017) Synthesis of hierarchical porous zinc oxide (ZnO) microspheres with highly efficient adsorption of Congo red. J Colloid Interface Sci 490:242–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2016.11.049
Li XH, Wang X, Antonietti M (2012) Mesoporous g-C3N4 nanorods as multifunctional supports of ultrafine metal nanoparticles: hydrogen generation from water and reduction of nitrophenol with tandem catalysis in one step. Chem Sci 3:2170–2174. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2sc20289a
Li Y, Wang Z, Xia T, Ju H, Zhang K, Long R, Xu Q, Wang C, Song L, Zhu J, Jiang J, Xiong Y (2016) Implementing metal-to-ligand Ccharge transfer in organic semiconductor for improved visible-near-infrared photocatalysis. Adv Mater 28:6959–6965. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201601960
Li C, Wang Y, Li C, Xu S, Hou X, Wu P (2019) Simultaneously broadened visible light absorption and boosted intersystem crossing in platinum-doped graphite carbon nitride for enhanced photosensitization. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 11:20770–20777. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b02767
Li ZC, Sellaoui L, Franco D, Netto MS, Georgin J, Dotto GL, Bajahzar A, Belmabrouk H, Bonilla-Petriciolet A, Li Q (2020) Adsorption of hazardous dyes on functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes in single and binary systems: Experimental study and physicochemical interpretation of the adsorption mechanism. Chem Eng J 389:124467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.124467
Liang Q, Jin J, Liu C, Xu S, Yao C, Chen Z, Li Z (2017) Hydrothermal fabrication of alpha-SnWO4/g-C3N4 heterostructure with enhanced visible-light photocatalytic activity. J Mater Sci Mater Electronics 28:11279–11283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-017-6918-2
Liang S, Zhang D, Pu X, Yao X, Han R, Yin J, Ren X (2019) A novel Ag2O/g- C3N4 p-n heterojunction photocatalysts with enhanced visible and near-infrared light activity. Sep Purif Technol 210:786–797. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2018.09.008
Linic S, Christopher P, Ingram DB (2011) Plasmonic-metal nanostructures for efficient conversion of solar to chemical energy. Nat Mater 10:911–921. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat3151
Liu G, Niu P, Sun C, Smith SC, Chen Z, Lu GQ, Cheng HM (2010) Unique electronic structure induced high photoreactivity of sulfur-doped graphitic C3N4. J Am Chem Soc 132:11642–11648. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja103798k
Long R, Huang H, Li Y, Song L, Xiong Y (2015) Palladium-based Nanomaterials: a platform to produce reactive oxygen species for catalyzing oxidation reactions. Adv Mater 27:7025–7042. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201502068
Lu C, Chen R, Wu X, Fan M, Liu Y, le Z, Jiang S, Song S (2016) Boron doped g- C3N4 with enhanced photocatalytic UO22+ reduction performance. Appl Surf Sci 360:1016–1022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.11.112
Mao J, Peng T, Zhang X, Li K, Ye L, Zan L (2013) Effect of graphitic carbon nitride microstructures on the activity and selectivity of photocatalytic CO2 reduction under visible light. Catalysis Sci Technol 3:1253–1260. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3cy20822b
Martin-Ramos P, Martin-Gil J, Dante RC, Vaquero F, Navarro RM, Fierro JLG (2015) A simple approach to synthesize g- C3N4 with high visible light photoactivity for hydrogen production. Int J Hydrog Energy 40:7273–7281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.04.063
Niu P, Liu G, Cheng H-M (2012a) Nitrogen vacancy-promoted photocatalytic activity of graphitic carbon nitride. J Phys Chem C 116:11013–11018. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp301026y
Niu P, Zhang L, Liu G, Cheng HM (2012b) Graphene-like carbon nitride nanosheets for improved photocatalytic. Activities Advanced Functional Mater 22:4763–4770. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201200922
Ong LK, Soetaredjo FE, Kurniawan A, Ayucitra A, Liu JC, Ismadji S (2014) Investigation on the montmorillonite adsorption of biocidal compounds incorporating thermodynamical-based multicomponent adsorption isotherm. Chem Eng J 241:9–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2013.12.001
Ong WJ, Tan LL, Ng YH, Yong ST, Chai SP (2016) Graphitic carbon nitride (g- C3N4)-based photocatalysts for artificial photosynthesis and environmental remediation: are we a step closer to achieving sustainability? Chem Rev 116:7159–7329. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00075
Patnaik S, Martha S, Acharya S, Parida KM (2016) An overview of the modification of g- C3N4 with high carbon containing materials for photocatalytic applications. Inorganic Chem Frontiers 3:336–347. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5qi00255a
Qi Y, Yang M, Xu W, He S, Men Y (2017) Natural polysaccharides-modified graphene oxide for adsorption of organic dyes from aqueous solutions. J Colloid Interface Sci 486:84–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2016.09.058
Ren HT, Jia SY, Wu Y, Wu SH, Zhang TH, Han X (2014) Improved photochemical reactivities of Ag2O/g- C3N4 in phenol degradation under UV and visible light. Ind Eng Chem Res 53:17645–17653. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie503312x
Schafer AI, Fane AG, Waite TD (2000) Fouling effects on rejection in the membrane filtration of natural waters. Desalination 131:215–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0011-9164(00)90020-1
Shi L, Wang F, Liang L, Chen K, Liu M, Zhu R, Sun J (2017) In site acid template induced facile synthesis of porous graphitic carbon nitride with enhanced visible-light photocatalytic activity. Catal Commun 89:129–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catcom.2016.10.020
Sun Z, Yu Z, Liu Y, Shi C, Zhu M, Wang A (2019) Construction of 2D/2D BiVO4/g- C3N4 nanosheet heterostructures with improved photocatalytic activity. J Colloid Interface Sci 533:251–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2018.08.071
Tada H, Fujishima M, Kobayashi H (2011) Photodeposition of metal sulfide quantum dots on titanium(IV) dioxide and the applications to solar energy conversion. Chem Soc Rev 40:4232–4243. https://doi.org/10.1039/c0cs00211a
Thomas A, Fischer A, Goettmann F, Antonietti M, Mueller JO, Schloegl R, Carlsson JM (2008) Graphitic carbon nitride materials: variation of structure and morphology and their use as metal-free catalysts. J Mater Chem 18:4893–4908. https://doi.org/10.1039/b800274f
Thomas J, Ambili KS, Radhika S (2018) Synthesis of Sm3+-doped graphitic carbon nitride nanosheets for the photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants under sunlight. Catal Today 310:11–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2017.06.029
Wang X, Maeda K, Thomas A, Takanabe K, Xin G, Carlsson JM, Domen K, Antonietti M (2009) A metal-free polymeric photocatalyst for hydrogen production from water under visible light. Nat Mater 8:76–80. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat2317
Wang X, Blechert S, Antonietti M (2012) Polymeric graphitic carbon nitride for heterogeneous photocatalysis. ACS Catal 2:1596–1606. https://doi.org/10.1021/cs300240x
Wang S, Li D, Sun C, Yang S, Guan Y, He H (2014) Synthesis and characterization of g-C3N4/Ag3VO4 composites with significantly enhanced visible-light photocatalytic activity for triphenylmethane dye degradation. Appl Catalysis B-Environ 144:885–892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2013.08.008
Wang JC, Cui CX, Li Y, Liu L, Zhang YP, Shi W (2017) Porous Mn doped g- C3N4 photocatalysts for enhanced synergetic degradation under visible-light illumination. J Hazard Mater 339:43–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.06.011
Wang H, Li Z, Yahyaoui S, Hanafy H, Li Q (2020) Effective adsorption of dyes on an activated carbon prepared from carboxymethyl cellulose: experiments, characterization and advanced modelling. Chem Eng J 8:128116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.128116
Wen J, Xie J, Chen X, Li X (2017) A review on g- C3N4-based photocatalysts. Appl Surf Sci 391:72–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2016.07.030
Xu M, Han L, Dong S (2013) Facile fabrication of highly efficient g-C3N4/Ag2O heterostructured photocatalysts with enhanced visible-light photocatalytic activity. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 5:12533–12540. https://doi.org/10.1021/am4038307
Xue J, Ma S, Zhou Y, Zhang Z, He M (2015) Facile photochemical synthesis of Au/Pt/g- C3N4 with plasmon-enhanced photocatalytic activity for antibiotic degradation. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 7:9630–9637. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.5b01212
Yue B, Li Q, Iwai H, Kako T, Ye J (2011) Hydrogen production using zinc-doped carbon nitride catalyst irradiated with visible light. Sci Technol Adv Mater 12:034401. https://doi.org/10.1088/1468-6996/12/3/034401
Zhang G, Zhang M, Ye X, Qiu X, Lin S, Wang X (2014) Iodine modified carbon nitride semiconductors as visible light photocatalysts for hydrogen evolution. Adv Mater 26:805–809. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201303611
Zhang M, Bai X, Liu D, Wang J, Zhu Y (2015) Enhanced catalytic activity of potassium-doped graphitic carbon nitride induced by lower valence position. Appl Catalysis B-Environ 164:77–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2014.09.020
Zhao H, Yu H, Quan X, Chen S, Zhang Y, Zhao H, Wang H (2014) Fabrication of atomic single layer graphitic- C3N4 and its high performance of photocatalytic disinfection under visible light irradiation. Appl Catalysis B-Environ 152:46–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2014.01.023
Zheng Y, Liu J, Liang J, Jaroniec M, Qiao SZ (2012) Graphitic carbon nitride materials: controllable synthesis and applications in fuel cells and photocatalysis. Energy Environ Sci 5:6717–6731. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2ee03479d
Zhu B, Zhang J, Jiang C, Cheng B, Yu J (2017) First principle investigation of halogen-doped monolayer g-C3N4 photocatalyst. Appl Catalysis B-Environ 207:27–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2017.02.020
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Sichuan Science and Technology Program (No. 19JCQN0061). The authors also thank Dr. Qili Hu of College of Ecology and Environment in Chengdu University of Technology for his generous help in explanation of adsorption mechanism.
Availability of data and materials
All data generated or analyzed during the current study are included in this article and its supplementary information files.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Qiang Chen contributed to the interpretation of the results and to the writing of the manuscript. Paijin Zhu designed and carried the experiment. Bing Wan collected the samples. Shuxia Xu and Yi Huang supervised the study. All the authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Yes, approval of all authors.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Sami Rtimi
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
ESM 1
(DOCX 451 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Chen, Q., Wan, B., Zhu, P. et al. The synergy of adsorption and photosensitization of platinum-doped graphitic carbon nitride for improved removal of rhodamine B. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29, 16449–16459 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15340-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15340-0