Abstract
To evaluate passenger health risks associated with inhalation exposure to carbonyl compounds mainly emitted from decoration materials of vehicles, we tested the carbonyl concentrations in interior air of 20 family cars, 6 metro lines, and 5 buses in the city of Nanjing. To assess non-carcinogenic health risks, we compared the data to the health guidelines of China, US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA), respectively. To assess carcinogenic risks, we followed a standard approach proposed by the OEHHA to calculate lifetime cancer risks (LCR) of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde for various age groups. The results showed that there are formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and acrolein concentrations in 40, 35, and 50% of family car samples exceeded the reference concentrations (RfCs) provided by Chinese guidelines (GB/T 27630-2011 and GB/T 18883-2002). Whereas, in the tested public transports, concentrations of the three carbonyls were all below the Chinese RfCs. Fifty and 90% of family cars had formaldehyde and acrolein concentrations exceeding the guidelines of OEHHA. Only one public transport sample (one bus) possesses formaldehyde and acetaldehyde concentrations above the chronic inhalation reference exposure limits (RELs). Furthermore, the assessments of carcinogenic risk of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde showed that lifetime cancer risks were higher than the limits of EPA for some family cars and public transports. In the study, buses and metros appear to be relatively clean environments, with total carbonyl concentrations that do not exceed 126 μg/m3. In family cars, carbonyl levels showed significant variations from 6.1 to 811 μg/m3 that was greatly influenced by direct emissions from materials inside the vehicles. Public transports seemed to be the first choice for resident trips as compared to family cars.
ᅟ
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Buters JT, Schober W, Gutermuth J et al (2007) Toxicity of parked motor vehicle indoor air. Environ Sci Technol 41(7):2622–2629
Caldwell J, Woodruff TJ, Morello-Frosch R et al (1998) Application of health information to hazardous air pollutants modeled in EPA’s Cumulative Exposure Project. Toxicol Ind Health 14(3):429–454
Chien YC (2007) Variations in amounts and potential sources of volatile organic chemicals in new cars. Sci Total Environ 382(2–3):228–239
Chinese Ministry of Environmental Protection eds (2016) Highlights of the Chinese exposure factors handbook (children volume) (in Chinese). China Environmental Science Press
Du Z, Mo J, Zhang Y (2014) Risk assessment of population inhalation exposure to volatile organic compounds and carbonyls in urban China. Environ Int 73C:33–45
Duan X, Zhao X, Wang B et al (2016) Highlights of the Chinese exposure factors handbook. Science Press, Beijing
Duong A, Steinmaus C, McHale CM et al (2011) Reproductive and developmental toxicity of formaldehyde: a systematic review. Mut Res 728(3):118–138
GB/T 18883 (2002) Standards for Indoor Air Quality (in Chinese)
GB/T 27630 (2011) Guideline for Air Quality Assessment of Passenger Car (in Chinese)
Graham DE (1992) Exposure of humans to a volatile organic mixture. III Inflammatory response. Arch Environ Health 47(1):39–44
Guo H, Lee SC, Chan LY et al (2004) Risk assessment of exposure to volatile organic compounds in different indoor environments. Environ Res 94(1):57–66
Huang L, Mo J, Sundell J et al (2013) Health risk assessment of inhalation exposure to formaldehyde and benzene in newly remodeled buildings, Beijing. PLoS One 8(11):e79553
IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancers) (1987) Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk to Humans, suppl 7. IARC, Lyon
Lerner JEC, Sanchez EY, Sambeth JE et al (2012) Characterization and health risk assessment of VOCs in occupational environments in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Atmos Environ 55:440–447
Li S, Chen SG, Zhu LZ et al (2009) Concentrations and risk assessment of selected monoaromatic hydrocarbons in buses and bus stations of Hangzhou, China. Sci Total Environ 407:2004–2011
Marchand C, Bulliot B, Le Calvé S et al (2006) Aldehyde measurements in indoor environment in Strasbourg (France). Atmos Environ 240(7):1336–1345
Meggs WJ, Cleveland CH Jr (1993) Rhinolaryngoscopic examination of patients with the multiple chemical sensitivity syndrome. Arch Environ Health 48(1):14–18
Mølhave L, Grønkjær J, Larsen S (1991) Subjective reactions to volatile organic compounds as air pollutants. Atmos Environ Part A 25(7):1283–1293
Norbäck D, Björnsson E, Janson C et al (1995) Asthmatic symptoms and volatile organic compounds, formaldehyde, and carbon dioxide in dwellings. Occup Environ Med 52(6):388–395
OEHHA (Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment) (2015) Air toxics hot spots program-guidance manual for preparation of health risk assessments. California Environmental Protection Agency
Otto DA (1992) Exposure of humans to a volatile organic mixture. II Sensory. Arch Environ Health 47(1):31–38
Otto DA, Hudnell HK, House DE et al (1992) Exposure of humans to a volatile organic mixture. I Behavioral assessment. Arch Environ Health 47(1):23–30
Parra MA, Elustondo D, Bermejo R et al (2008) Exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOC) in public buses of Pamplona, northern Spain. Sci Total Environ 404(1):18–25
Payne-Sturges DC, Burke TA, Breysse P et al (2004) Personal exposure meets risk assessment: a comparison of measured and modeled exposures and risks in an urban community. Environ Health Perspect 112(5):589–598
Ritchie IM, Lehnen RG (1987) Formaldehyde-related health complaints of residents living in mobile and conventional homes. Am J Public Health 77(3):323–328
Rodricks JV (1992) Calculated risks, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Sarigiannis DA, Karakitsios SP, Gotti A (2011) Exposure to major volatile organic compounds and carbonyls in European indoor environments and associated health risk. Environ Int 37(4):743–765
Stranger M, Potgieter-Vermaak SS, Van Grieken R (2007) Comparative overview of indoor air quality in Antwerp, Belgium. Environ Int 33(6):789–797
US EPA (US Environmental Protection Agency) (2004) Integrated Risk Information System (http://www.epa.gov/iris) (Accessed on 4 Nov 2016)
US EPA (US Environmental Protection Agency) (2011) Exposure factors handbook: 2011 edition. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC
WHO (World Health Organization) (2000) Guidelines for air quality. Geneva, Switzerland
Woodruff TJ, Axelrad DA, Caldwell J et al (1998) Public health implications of 1990 air toxics concentrations across the United States. Environ Health Perspect 106(5):245–251
Wu X, Apte MG, Maddalena R et al (2011) Volatile organic compounds in small-and medium-sized commercial buildings in California. Environ Sci Technol 45(20):9075–9083
Yoshida T, Matsunaga I (2006) A case study on identification of airborne organic compounds and time courses of their concentrations in the cabin of a new car for private use. Environ Int 32(1):58–79
Zhang GS, Li TT, Luo M et al (2008) Air pollution in the microenvironment of parked new cars. Build Environ 43(3):315–319
Funding
This work was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant 21507036, 21407055) and the Central Public-interest Scientific Research Institution Basal Research Fund (GYZX170303).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Additional information
Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues
Electronic supplementary material
Table S1
(DOCX 22 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Xu, H., Zhang, Q., Song, N. et al. Personal exposure and health risk assessment of carbonyls in family cars and public transports—a comparative study in Nanjing, China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24, 26111–26119 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0150-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0150-8