Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Environmental implications of high metal content in soils of a titanium mining zone in Kenya

Environmental Science and Pollution Research volume 23, pages 21431–21440 (2016)Cite this article

Abstract

Mining activities contribute to an increase of specific metal contaminants in soils. This may adversely affect plant life and consequently impact on animal and human health. The objective of this study was to obtain the background metal concentrations in soils around the titanium mining in Kwale County for monitoring its environmental impacts. Forty samples were obtained with half from topsoils and the other from subsoils. X-ray fluorescence spectrometry was used to determine the metal content of the soil samples. High concentrations of Ti, Mn, Fe, and Zr were observed where Ti concentrations ranged from 0.47 to 2.8 %; Mn 0.02 to 3.1 %; Fe 0.89 to 3.1 %; and Zr 0.05 to 0.85 %. Using ratios of elemental concentrations in topsoil to subsoil method and enrichment factors concept, the metals were observed to be of geogenic origin with no anthropogenic input. The high concentrations of Mn and Fe may increase their concentration levels in the surrounding agricultural lands through deposition, thereby causing contamination on the land and the cultivated food crops. The latter can cause adverse human health effects. In addition, titanium mining will produce tailings containing low-level titanium concentrations, which will require proper disposal to avoid increasing titanium concentrations in the soils of the region since it has been observed to be phytotoxic to plants at high concentrations. The results of this study will serve as reference while monitoring the environmental impact by the titanium mining activities.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

39,95 €

Price includes VAT (Finland)

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

References

  • Abdul-Wahab SA, Marikar FA (2012) The environmental impact of gold mines: pollution by heavy metals. Cent Eur J Eng 2(2):304–313

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Allan R (1997) Introduction: mining and metals in the environment. J Geochem Explor 58:95–100

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Base Resources (2015) Base titanium – Overview. http://basetitanium.com/kwale-project/project-overview. Accessed 12th November 2015

  • Bech J, Poschenrieder C, Llugany M, Barceló J, Tume P, Tobias FJ, Barranzuela JL, Vásquez ER (1997) Arsenic and heavy metal contamination of soil and vegetation around a copper mine in northern Peru. Sci Total Environ 203:83–91

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bian H, Zender CS (2003) Mineral dust and global tropospheric chemistry: relative roles of photolysis and heterogeneous uptake. J Geophys Res Atmos 108(D21):4672

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bini C, Sartori G, Wahsha M, Fontana S (2011) Background levels of trace elements and soil geochemistry at regional level in NE Italy. J Geochem Explor 109:125–133

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blaser P, Zimmermann S, Luster J, Shotyk J (2000) Critical examination of trace element enrichments and depletion in soils: AS, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn in Swiss forest soils. Sci Total Environ 249:257–280

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Borûvka L, Vacek O, Jehliĉka J (2005) Principal component analysis as a tool to indicate the origin of potentially toxic elements in soils. Geoderma 128:289–300

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bourennane H, Douay F, Sterckeman T, Villanneau E, Ciesielski H, King D, Baize D (2010) Mapping of anthropogenic trace elements inputs in agricultural topsoil from northern France using enrichment factors. Geoderma 157:165–174

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Candeias C, da Silva EF, Ávila PF, Teixeira JP (2014) Identifying sources and assessing potential risk of exposure to heavy metals and hazardous materials in mining areas: the case study of Panasqueira mine (Central Portugal) as an example. Geosciences 4:240–268

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen JP (2012) Decontamination of heavy metals. processes, mechanisms and applications. CRC Press; Taylor and Francis Group

  • Conesa HM, Faz Á, Arnaldos R (2006) Heavy metal accumulation and tolerance in plants from mine tailings of the semiarid Cartagena–La Unión mining district (SE Spain). Sci Total Environ 366:1–11

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deschenes S, Setton E, Demers PA, Keller PC (2013) Exploring the relationship between surface and subsurface soil concentrations of heavy metals using geographically weighted regression. E3S Web of conferences 1: 35007

  • Dudka S, Adriano DC (1997) Environmental impacts of metal ore mining and processing: a review. J Environ Qual 26:590–602

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Facchinelli A, Sacchi E, Mallen L (2001) Multivariate statistical and GIS-based approach to identify heavy metal sources in soils. Environ Pollut 114:313–324

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gałuska A, Migaszewski ZM (2011) Geochemical background – an environmental perspective. Minelogia 42(1):7–17

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenfield A, Graedel TE (2013) The omnivorous diet of modern technology. Resour Conserv Recycl 74:1–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guo K, Liu YF, Zeng C, Chen YY, Wei XJ (2014) Global research on soil contamination from 1999 to 2012: a bibliometric analysis. Acta Agric Scand Sect B Soil Plant Sci 64(5):377–391

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • He ZL, Yang XE, Stoffella PJ (2005) Trace elements in agroecosystems and impacts on the environment. J Trace Elem Med Biol 19:125–140

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hernandez L, Probst A, Probst JL, Ulrich E (2003) Heavy metal distribution in some French forest soils: evidence for atmospheric contamination. Sci Total Environ 312:195–219

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Horkel AD, Neubauer W, Niedermayr G, Okelo RE, Wachira JK, Werneck W (1984) Notes on the geology and mineral resources of the southern Kenyan coast. Mitt Österr Geol Ges 77:151–159

    Google Scholar 

  • Hudson TL, Fox FD, PLumlee GS (1999) Metal mining and the environment. AAGI environ. Aware Ser 3:1–68

    Google Scholar 

  • Jing LI, Zheng-miao X, Yong-guanz Z, Ravi Naidu R (2005) Risk assessment of heavy metal contaminated soil in the vicinity of a lead/zinc mine. J Environ Sci 17:881–885

    Google Scholar 

  • Kabata-Pendis A (2011) Trace elements in soils and plants. 4th ed. CRC Press; Taylor and Francis Group

  • Kabata-Pendis A, Mukherjee AB (2007) Trace Elements from soil to human. Springer

  • Kien CN, Noi NV, Son LT, Ha M, Ngoc HM, Tanaka S, Takuro Nishina T, Iwasaki K (2010) Heavy metal contamination of agricultural soils around a chromite mine in Vietnam. Soil Sci Plant Nutr 56:344–356

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khalil H, Hamiani O, Bitton G, Ouazzani N, Boularbah A (2008) Heavy metal contamination of mining sites in South Morocco: monitoring heavy metal content and toxicity of soil runoff and ground water. Environ Monit Assess 136:147–160

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krishna AK, Mohan KR, Murthy NN, Periasamy V, Bipinkumar G, Manohar K, Rao SS (2013) Assessment of heavy metal contamination in soils around chromite mining areas, Nuggihalli, Karnataka, India. Environ Earth Sci 70:699–708

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li Z, Zongwei Ma Z, van der Kuijp TJ, Yuan Z, Huang L (2014) A review of soil heavy metal pollution from mines in China: pollution and health risk assessment. Sci Total Environ 468 – 469:843–853

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lane DA (1991) Pollution caused by waste from titanium industry: directive 89/428. Boston Coll Int Comp Law Rev 14(2):425–434

    Google Scholar 

  • Loska K, Wiechuka D, Korus I (2004) Metal contamination of farming soils affected by industry. Environ Int 30:159–165

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ma L, Sun J, Yang Z, Wang L (2015) Heavy metal contamination of agricultural soils affected by mining activities around the Ganxi River in Chenzhou, southern China. Environ Monit Assess 187:731

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Market Line (2015) Global – Metals & Mining. http://www.marketline.com. Accessed 12th November 2015

  • Monterroso C, Rodríguez F, Chaves R, Diez J, Becerra-Castro C, Kidd PS Macías F (2014) Heavy metal distribution in mine-soils and plants growing in a Pb/Zn-mining area in NW Spain. Appl Geochem 44: 3–11

  • Ngoc KC, Nguyen NV, Dinh BN, Thanh SL, Tanaka S, Kang Y, Sakurai K, Iwasaki K (2009) Arsenic and heavy metal concentrations in agricultural soils around tin and tungsten mines in the Dai Ti district, N. Vietnam. Water Air Soil Pollut 197:75–89

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olsgard F, Hasle JR (1993) Impact of waste from titanium mining on benthic fauna. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 172:185–213

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oyarzun R, Lillo J, López-Garcίa JA, Esbrί JM, Cubas P, Llanos W, Higueras P (2011) The Mazarrón Pb-(Ag)-Zn mining district (SE Spain) as a source of heavy metal contamination in a semiarid realm: geochemical data from mine wastes, soils, and stream sediments. J Geochem Explor 109:113–124

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pokhrel LR, Dubey B (2013) Global scenarios of metal mining, environmental repercussions, public policies, and sustainability: a review. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 43:23525–22388

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pourret O, Lange B, BonHoure J, Colinet G, Decree S, Mahy G, et al. (2015) Assessment of soil metal distribution and environmental impact of mining in Katanga (Democratic Republic of Congo). Appl Geochem. doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2015.07.012

    Google Scholar 

  • Qu C-S, Ma Z-W, Yang J, Liu Y, Bi J, Huang L (2012) Human exposure pathways of heavy metals in a lead-zinc mining area, Jiangsu Province, China. PLoS One 2012; 7(11) e46793 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0046793

  • Rafiei B, Bakhtiari NM, Hashemi M, Khodaei AS (2010) Distribution of heavy metals around the Dashkasan Au mine. Int J Environ Res 4(4):647–654

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reimann C, de Caritat P (2005) Distinguishing between natural and anthropogenic sources for elements in the environment: regional geochemical surveys versus enrichment factors. Sci Total Environ 337:91–107

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reimann C, Garrett RG (2005) Geochemical background - concept and reality. Sci Total Environ 350:12–27

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Šalamún P, Hanzelová V, Brázová T (2015) Heavy metals – Soil communities at ecological risk. In: Larramendy M, Soloneski S (eds) Emerging pollutants in the environment – Current and further implications, InTech, pp 21–29.

  • Salomons W (1995) Environmental impact of metals derived from mining activities: processes, predictions, prevention. J Geochem Explor 52:5–23

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Senesi GS, Baldassarre G, Senesi N, Radina B (1999) Trace element inputs into soils by antropogenic activities and implications for human health. Chemosphere 39:343–377

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Steinnes E, Njåstad O (1995) Enrichment of metals in the organic surface layer of natural soil: identification of contributions from different sources. Analyst 120:1479–1483

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sucharova J, Suchara I, Hola M, Marikova S, Reimann C, Boyd R Filzmoser P, Englmaier P (2012) Top −/bottom-soil ratios and enrichment factors: what do they really show? Appl Geochem 27: 138–145

  • Towett EK, Shepherd KD, Tondoh JE, Winowiecki LA, Lulseged T, Nyambura M, Sila A, Vågen T-G, Cadisch G (2015) Total elemental composition of soils in sub-Saharan Africa and relationship with soil forming factors. Geoderma Reg 5:157–168

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Voet E, Salminen R, Eckelman M, Mudd G, Norgate T, Hischier R (2013) Environmental risks and challenges of anthropogenic metals flows and cycles. A report of the working group on the global metal flows to the International resource panel. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

  • White JG, Zasoski RJ (1991) Mapping soil micronutrients. Field Crop Res 60:11–26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2004) Manganese and its compounds: environmental aspects. Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 63 WHO, Geneva

  • Zhang W, Zhu Z, Cheng CY (2011) A literature review of titanium metallurgical processes. Hydrometallurgy 108:177–188

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhuang P, Zou B, Li NY, Li ZA (2009) Heavy metal contamination in soils and food crops around Dabaoshan mine in Guangdong, China: implication for human health. Environ Geochem Health 31:707–715

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank the International Science Programmes, Uppsala University in Sweden for research support at the Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology and consequently this study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, University of Nairobi, P. O. Box 30197, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya

    David M. Maina, Douglas M. Ndirangu, Michael M. Mangala & Michael J. Gatari

  2. Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, Atmospheric Science, University of Gothenburg, SE -412 96, Goteborg, Sweden

    Johan Boman

  3. World Agroforestry Centre, United Nations Avenue, Gigiri, P. O. Box 30677, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya

    Keith Shepherd

Authors
  1. David M. Maina
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Douglas M. Ndirangu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Michael M. Mangala
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Johan Boman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Keith Shepherd
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Michael J. Gatari
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to David M. Maina.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Zhihong Xu

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Maina, D.M., Ndirangu, D.M., Mangala, M.M. et al. Environmental implications of high metal content in soils of a titanium mining zone in Kenya. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23, 21431–21440 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7249-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7249-1

Keywords

  • Topsoil
  • Subsoil
  • Metal contaminants
  • Environmental impacts
  • Enrichment factors
  • Human health

Search

Navigation