Skip to main content

Toxicity assessment of the water used for human consumption from the Cameron/Tuba City abandoned uranium mining area prior/after the combined electrochemical treatment/advanced oxidation

Environmental Science and Pollution Research volume 22, pages 516–526 (2015)Cite this article

Abstract

The purpose of this work was detailed physicochemical, radiological, and toxicological characterization of the composite sample of water intended for human consumption in the Cameron/Tuba City abandoned uranium mining area before and after a combined electrochemical/advanced oxidation treatment. Toxicological characterization was conducted on human lymphocytes using a battery of bioassays. On the bases of the tested parameters, it could be concluded that water used for drinking from the tested water sources must be strictly forbidden for human and/or animal consumption since it is extremely cytogenotoxic, with high oxidative stress potential. A combined electrochemical treatment and posttreatment with ozone and UV light decreased the level of all physicochemical and radiological parameters below the regulated values. Consequently, the purified sample was neither cytotoxic nor genotoxic, indicating that the presented method could be used for the improvement of water quality from the sites highly contaminated with the mixture of heavy metals and radionuclides.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

References

  • Abdelouas A, Lu Y, Lutze W, Nuttall HE (1998a) Reduction of U(VI) to U(IV) by indigenous bacteria in contaminated ground water. J Contam Hydrol 35:217–233

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abdelouas A, Lutze W, Nuttall HE (1998b) Chemical reactions of uranium in ground water at a mill tailings site. J Contam Hydrol 34:343–361

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abdelouas A, Lutze W, Nuttall HE (1999) Oxidative dissolution of uraninite precipitated on Navajo sandstone. J Contam Hydrol 36:353–375

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Research (2005) Toxicological profile for arsenic. US Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service, Atlanta

    Google Scholar 

  • Antunes SC, de Figueiredo DR, Marques SM, Castro BB, Pereira R, Gonçalves F (2007a) Evaluation of water column and sediment toxicity from an abandoned uranium mine using a battery of bioassays. Sci Total Environ 374:252–259

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Antunes SC, Pereira R, Gonçalves F (2007b) Acute and chronic toxicity of effluent water from an abandoned uranium mine. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 53:207–213

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bradford MM (1976) A rapid and sensitive method for the quantitation of microgram quantities of protein of protein utilizing the principle of protein-dye binding. Anal Biochem 72:248–254

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brugge D, Buchner V (2011) Health effects of uranium: new research findings. Rev Environ Health 26:231–249

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brugge D, Buchner V (2012) Radium in the environment: exposure pathways and health effects. Rev Environ Health 27:1–17

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brugge D, Goble R (2002) The history of uranium mining and the Navajo people. Am J Public Health 92:1410–1419

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brugge D, de Lemos JL, Oldmixon B (2005) Exposure pathways and health effects associated with chemical and radiological toxicity of natural uranium: a review. Rev Environ Health 20:177–193

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cavallo D, Ursini CL, Setini A, Chianese C, Piegari P, Perniconi B, Iavicoli S (2003) Evaluation of oxidative damage and inhibition of DNA repair in an in vitro study of nickel exposure. Toxicol In Vitro 17:603–607

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Circu ML, Aw TY (2010) Reactive oxygen species, cellular redox systems, and apoptosis. Free Radic Biol Med 48:749–762

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins AR (2004) The comet assay for DNA damage and repair: principles, applications, and limitations. Mol Biotechnol 26:249–261

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins AR (2009) Investigating oxidative DNA damage and its repair using the comet assay. Mutat Res 681:24–32

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooksey C (2012) Health concerns of heavy metals and metalloids. Sci Prog 95:73–88

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson SE, Madsen GE (2011) Psychosocial and health impacts of uranium mining and milling on Navajo lands. Health Phys 101:618–625

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • del Rio D, Stewart AJ, Pellegrini N (2005) A review of recent studies on malondialdehyde as toxic molecule and biological marker of oxidative stress. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 15:316–328

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeLemos J, Rock T, Brugge D, Slagowski N, Manning T, Lewis J (2007) Lessons from the Navajo: assistance with environmental data collection ensures cultural humility and data relevance. Prog Community Health Partnersh 1:321–326

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeLemos JL, Brugge D, Cajero M, Downs M, Durant JL, George CM, Henio-Adeky S, Nez T, Manning T, Rock T, Seschillie B, Shuey C, Lewis J (2009) Development of risk maps to minimize uranium exposures in the Navajo Churchrock mining district. Environ Health 8:29

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dreesen DR, Williams JM, Marple ML, Gladney ES, Perrin DR (1982) Mobility and bioavailability of uranium mill tailing contaminants. Environ Sci Technol 16:702–709

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duke RC, Cohen JJ (1992) Morphological and biochemical assays of apoptosis. In: Coligan JE, Kruisbeal AM (eds) Current protocols in immunology. Willey, New York, pp 1–3

    Google Scholar 

  • Esterbauer H (1993) Cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of lipid-oxidation products. Am J Clin Nutr 57:779S–786S

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Faust F, Kassie F, Knasmüller S, Kevekordes S, Mersch-Sundermann V (2004) Use of primary blood cells for the assessment of exposure to occupational genotoxicants in human biomonitoring studies. Toxicology 198:341–350

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gajski G, Garaj-Vrhovac V, Oreščanin V (2008) Cytogenetic status and oxidative DNA-damage induced by atorvastatin in human peripheral blood lymphocytes: standard and Fpg-modified comet assay. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 231:85–93

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gajski G, Domijan AM, Garaj-Vrhovac V (2012) Alterations of GSH and MDA levels and their association with bee venom-induced DNA damage in human peripheral blood leukocytes. Environ Mol Mutagen 53:469–477

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilliland FD, Hunt WC, Pardilla M, Key CR (2000) Uranium mining and lung cancer among Navajo men in New Mexico and Arizona, 1969 to 1993. J Occup Environ Med 42:278–283

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • International Agency for Research on Cancer (2009) Agents reviewed by the IARC Monographs. Volumes 1–100A. IARC, Lyon, France

  • Knöbel Y, Glei M, Weise A, Osswald K, Schäferhenrich A, Richter KK, Claussen U, Pool-Zobel BL (2006) Uranyl nitrilotriacetate, a stabilized salt of uranium, is genotoxic in nontransformed human colon cells and in the human colon adenoma cell line LT97. Toxicol Sci 93:286–297

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kryscio A, Ulrich Müller WU, Wojcik A, Kotschy N, Grobelny S, Streffer C (2001) A cytogenetic analysis of the long-term effect of uranium mining on peripheral lymphocytes using the micronucleus-centromere assay. Int J Radiat Biol 77:1087–1093

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kryston TB, Georgiev AB, Pissis P, Georgakilas AG (2011) Role of oxidative stress and DNA damage in human carcinogenesis. Mutat Res 711:193–201

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lene HS, Veiga LHS, Amaral ECS, Fernandes HM (1998) Human health risk screening of radioactive and nonradioactive contaminants due to uranium industry operation. J Environ Radioact 39:69–85

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd DC, Lucas JN, Edwards AA, Deng W, Valente E, Hone PA, Moquet JE (2001) A study to verify a reported excess of chromosomal aberrations in blood lymphocytes of Namibian uranium miners. Radiat Res 155:809–817

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lourenço J, Castro BB, Machado R, Nunes B, Mendo S, Gonçalves F, Pereira R (2010) Genetic, biochemical, and individual responses of the teleost fish Carassius auratus to uranium. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 58:1023–1031

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lourenço J, Pereira R, Gonçalves F, Mendo S (2013a) Metal bioaccumulation, genotoxicity and gene expression in the European wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) inhabiting an abandoned uranium mining area. Sci Total Environ 443:673–680

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lourenço J, Pereira R, Pinto F, Caetano T, Silva A, Carvalheiro T, Guimarães A, Gonçalves F, Paiva A, Mendo S (2013b) Biomonitoring a human population inhabiting nearby a deactivated uranium mine. Toxicology 305:89–98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marnett LJ (2002) Oxy radicals, lipid peroxidation and DNA damage. Toxicology 181–182:219–222

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marques SM, Gonçalves F, Pereira R (2008) Effects of a uranium mine effluent in the early-life stages of Rana perezi Seoane. Sci Total Environ 402:29–35

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marques SM, Antunes SC, Pissarra H, Pereira ML, Gonçalves F, Pereira R (2009) Histopathological changes and erythrocytic nuclear abnormalities in Iberian green frogs (Rana perezi Seoane) from a uranium mine pond. Aquat Toxicol 91:187–195

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLemore VT (1983) Uranium industry in New Mexico—history, production, and current status. New Mexico Geology 5:45–51

    Google Scholar 

  • Mohrenweiser HW, Jones IM (1998) Variation in DNA repair is a factor in cancer susceptibility: a paradigm for the promises and perils of individual and population risk estimation? Mutat Res 400:15–24

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Montjean D, Ménézo Y, Benkhalifa M, Cohen M, Belloc S, Cohen-Bacrie P, de Mouzon J (2010) Malonaldehyde formation and DNA fragmentation: two independent sperm decays linked to reactive oxygen species. Zygote 18:265–268

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moure-Eraso R (1999) Observational studies as human experimentation: the uranium mining experience in the Navajo Nation (1947–66). New Solut 9:163–178

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nair U, Bartsch H, Nair J (2007) Lipid peroxidation-induced DNA damage in cancer-prone inflammatory diseases: a review of published adduct types and levels in humans. Free Radic Biol Med 43:1109–1120

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Navajo Nation Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Navajo Nation primary drinking water regulations, public water systems supervision program. NNEPA, Window Rock, Arizona

  • Oreščanin V, Kollar R, Nad K, Lovrenčić Mikelić I, Kollar I (2011a) Characterization and treatment of water used for human consumption from six sources located in the Cameron/Tuba city abandoned uranium mining area. J Environ Sci Health Part A 46:627–635

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oreščanin V, Kollar R, Nad K (2011b) The electrocoagulation/advanced oxidation treatment of the groundwater used for human consumption. J Environ Sci Health Part A 46:1611–1618

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oreščanin V, Kollar R, Nad K (2011c) The application of the ozonation/electrocoagulation treatment process of the boat pressure washing wastewater. J Environ Sci Health Part A 46:1338–1345

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orieux N, Cambier S, Gonzalez P, Morin B, Adam C, Garnier-Laplace J, Bourdineaud JP (2011) Genotoxic damages in zebrafish submitted to a polymetallic gradient displayed by the Lot River (France). Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 74:974–983

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Popp W, Plappert U, Müller WU, Rehn B, Schneider J, Braun A, Bauer PC, Vahrenholz C, Presek P, Brauksiepe A, Enderle G, Wüst T, Bruch J, Fliedner TM, Konietzko N, Streffer C, Woitowitz HJ, Norpoth K (2000) Biomarkers of genetic damage and inflammation in blood and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid among former German uranium miners: a pilot study. Radiat Environ Biophys 39:275–282

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prá D, Franke SI, Giulian R, Yoneama ML, Dias JF, Erdtmann B, Henriques JA (2008) Genotoxicity and mutagenicity of iron and copper in mice. Biometals 21:289–297

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pyle GG, Swanson SM, Lehmkuhl DM (2002) Toxicity of uranium mine receiving waters to early life stage fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) in the laboratory. Environ Pollut 116:243–255

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roscoe RJ, Deddens JA, Salvan A, Schnorr TM (1995) Mortality among Navajo uranium miners. Am J Public Health 85:535–540

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rucinska R, Sobkowiak R, Gwozdz EA (2004) Genotoxicity of lead in lupin root cells as evaluated by the comet assay. Cell Mol Biol Lett 9:519–528

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salama SA, Serrana M, Au WW (1999) Biomonitoring using accessible human cells for exposure and health risk assessment. Mutat Res 436:99–112

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sethi TK, El-Ghamry MN, Kloecker GH (2012) Radon and lung cancer. Clin Adv Hematol Oncol 10:157–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Shuhua X, Ziyou L, Fei W, Sun G (2012) A role of fluoride on free radical generation and oxidative stress in BV-2 microglia cells. Mediators Inflamm. doi:10.1155/2012/102954

    Google Scholar 

  • Simon O, Mottin E, Geffroy B, Hinton T (2011) Effects of dietary uranium on reproductive endpoints—fecundity, survival, reproductive success—of the fish Danio rerio. Environ Toxicol Chem 30:220–225

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh NP (2000) Microgels for estimation of DNA strand breaks, DNA protein crosslinks and apoptosis. Mutat Res 455:111–127

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh NP, McCoy MT, Tice RR, Schneider LL (1988) A simple technique for quantitation of low levels of DNA damage in individual cells. Exp Cell Res 175:184–191

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sohal RS, Weindruch R (1996) Oxidative stress, caloric restriction, and aging. Science 273:59–63

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Srám RJ, Binková B, Dobiás L, Rössner P, Topinka J, Veselá D, Veselý D, Stejskalová J, Bavorová H, Rericha V (1993) Monitoring genotoxic exposure in uranium miners. Environ Health Perspect 99:303–305

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stearns DM, Yazzie M, Bradley AS, Coryell VH, Shelley JT, Ashby A, Asplund CS, Lantz RC (2005) Uranyl acetate induces hprt mutations and uranium-DNA adducts in Chinese hamster ovary EM9 cells. Mutagenesis 20:417–423

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stephenson AP, Schneider JA, Nelson BC, Atha DH, Jain A, Soliman KF, Aschner M, Mazzio E, Renee Reams R (2013) Manganese-induced oxidative DNA damage in seuronal SH-SY5Y cells: attenuation of thymine base lesions by glutathione and N-acetylcystein. Toxicol Lett 218:299–307

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trzeciak A, Kowalik J, Małecka-Panas E, Drzewoski J, Wojewódzka M, Iwaneńko T, Błasiak J (2000) Genotoxicity of chromium in human gastric mucosa cells and peripheral blood lymphocytes evaluated by the single cell gel electrophoresis (comet assay). Med Sci Monit 6:24–29

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • US Environmental Protection Agency (1998) Abandoned uranium mines project in Arizona, New Mexico, Utah - Navajo Lands - 1994–2000- section 3- Cameron/Tuba City area. USEPA, Washington, D.C., pp 1–32

    Google Scholar 

  • US Environmental Protection Agency (2008) Health and environmental impacts of uranium contamination in the Navajo Nation five-year plan. USEPA, Washington, D.C., pp 1–46

    Google Scholar 

  • US Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (2006) Abandoned uranium mines (AUM) and the Navajo Nation Western AUM region screening assessment report. USEPA, Washington, D.C., pp 1–44

    Google Scholar 

  • Vasil'eva ZZ, Besmirbaev RI, Bekmanov BO, Vorobtsova IE (2010) Association of genetic polymorphism in GSTM1 and GSTT1 with the frequency of chromosomal aberrations in the uranium workers. Radiats Biol Radioecol 50:148–152

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker WJ, Christensen LP (2008) Summary of groundwater data collected from Navajo wells on March 16, 2007, vicinity of Tuba City, Arizona—final report. Walker & Associates Inc., Memphis, pp 1–64

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolf G, Arndt D, Kotschy-Lang N, Obe G (2004) Chromosomal aberrations in uranium and coal miners. Int J Radiat Biol 80:147–153

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (2006) Guidelines for drinking-water quality. WHO, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Yıldız M, Ciğerci IH, Konuk M, Fidan AF, Terzi H (2009) Determination of genotoxic effects of copper sulphate and cobalt chloride in Allium cepa root cells by chromosome aberration and comet assays. Chemosphere 75:934–938

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zaire R, Griffin CS, Simpson PJ, Papworth DG, Savage JR, Armstrong S, Hultèn MA (1996) Analysis of lymphocytes from uranium mineworkers in Namibia for chromosomal damage using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Mutat Res 371:109–113

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zölzer F, Hon Z, Freitinger Skalická Z, Havránková R, Navrátil L, Rosina J, Skopek J (2012) Persistence of genetic damage in lymphocytes from former uranium miners. Cytogenet Genome Res 136:288–294

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zribi N, Chakroun NF, Elleuch H, Abdallah FB, Ben Hamida AS, Gargouri J, Fakhfakh F, Keskes LA (2011) Sperm DNA fragmentation and oxidation are independent of malondialdheyde. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 9:47

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This study was financially supported by the Croatian Ministry of Science, Education and Sports (grant no. 022-0222148-2125).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that there have been no conflicts of interests in this research.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Mutagenesis Unit, Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Ksaverska cesta 2, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia

    Goran Gajski, Marko Gerić & Vera Garaj-Vrhovac

  2. Advanced Energy Ltd., Vlade Prekrata 43, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia

    Višnja Oreščanin & Robert Kollar

  3. Laboratory for Radioecology, Division for Marine and Environmental Research, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička cesta 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia

    Ivanka Lovrenčić Mikelić

Authors
  1. Goran Gajski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Višnja Oreščanin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Marko Gerić
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Robert Kollar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Ivanka Lovrenčić Mikelić
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Vera Garaj-Vrhovac
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Vera Garaj-Vrhovac.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Markus Hecker

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Gajski, G., Oreščanin, V., Gerić, M. et al. Toxicity assessment of the water used for human consumption from the Cameron/Tuba City abandoned uranium mining area prior/after the combined electrochemical treatment/advanced oxidation. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22, 516–526 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3376-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3376-8

Keywords

  • Uranium mining area
  • Human lymphocytes
  • Cytotoxicity
  • Genotoxicity
  • Oxidative stress
  • Electrochemical treatment
  • Advanced oxidation