Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Soil concentrations and source apportionment of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and trace elements around a heavily industrialized area in Kocaeli, Turkey

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Environmental Science and Pollution Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Air pollutants are transported by dry deposition, wet deposition, and gas exchange accumulated in soil. Therefore, soil is an important environmental medium reflecting the level and the spatial distribution of air pollutants such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and heavy metals. Soil concentrations of seven PBDE congeners and 21 trace elements were determined in a heavily industrialized region (Dilovasi) in Kocaeli, Turkey. At all sites, Σ7PBDE concentrations ranged from 0.70 to 203 with a mean value of 26.3 μg kg−1 (dry weight). The congener profiles and mass inventories of PBDEs and their interactions with soil organic matter (SOM) were also investigated. BDE-209 was the dominant congener at all sites, followed by BDE-99 and/or -47. The estimated inventory of PBDEs for the Dilovasi district was 310 kg. However, there are several additional industrial regions in Kocaeli city. Considering the total land area, the potential inventory would be much larger for this city. The relationship between the PBDE concentrations in soil and SOM content indicated that factors other than soil properties have a greater influence on soil concentrations. Crustal enrichment factors (EFs) were determined; correlation analysis and factor analysis (FA) were also applied to generated data set to identify and apportion the sources polluting the soil. Sn, Mn, Ca, As, Zn, Pb, and Cd had significantly high average EF values, indicating that their soil concentrations were mainly influenced by anthropogenic activities. In FA, six factors were extracted with a cumulative variance of 84.4 % and industrial activities and traffic were found to be the main factors affecting the soil profile.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alcock RE, Sweetman AJ, Prevedouros K, Jones KC (2003) Understanding levels and trends of BDE-47 in the UK and North America: an assessment of principal reservoirs and source inputs. Environ Int 29:691–698

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arslan O, Cepni MS, Etiler N (2013) Spatial analysis of perinatal mortality rates with geographic information systems in Kocaeli, Turkey. Public Health 127:369–379

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bozlaker A, Odabasi M, Muezzinoglu A (2008a) Dry deposition and soil–air gas exchange of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in an industrial area. Environ Pollut 156:784–793

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bozlaker A, Muezzinoglu A, Odabasi M (2008b) Atmospheric concentrations, dry deposition and air–soil exchange of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in an industrial region in Turkey. J Hazard Mater 153:1093–1102

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Braekevelt E, Titlemier SA, Tommy GT (2003) Direct measurement of octanol–water partition coefficients of some environmentally relevant brominated diphenyl ether congeners. Chemosphere 51:563–567

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cetin B, Odabasi M (2005) Measurement of Henry’s law constants of seven polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners as a function of temperature. Atmos Environ 39:5273–5280

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cetin B, Odabasi M (2007a) Particle-phase dry deposition and air-soil gas-exchange of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in Izmir. Turkey. Environ Sci Technol 41:4986–4992

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cetin B, Odabasi M (2007b) Air-water exchange and dry deposition of polybrominated diphenyl ethers at a coastal site in Izmir Bay. Turkey. Environ Sci Technol 41:785–791

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cetin B, Odabasi M (2008) Atmospheric concentrations and phase partitioning of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in Izmir, Turkey. Chemosphere 71:1067–1078

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cetin B, Odabasi M (2011) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in indoor and outdoor window organic films in Izmir. Turkey. J Hazard Mater 185:784–791

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cetin B, Yatkin S, Bayram A, Odabasi M (2007) Ambient concentrations and source apportionment of PCBs and trace elements around an industrial area in Izmir, Turkey. Chemosphere 69:1267–1277

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen SJ, Luo XJ, Lin Z, Luo Y, Li KC, Peng XZ, Mai BX, Ran Y, Zeng EY (2007) Time trends of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in sediment cores from the Pearl River Estuary, South China. Environ Sci Technol 41:5595–5600

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chou H-L, Chang Y-T, Liao Y-F, Lin C-H (2013) Biodegradation of decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) by bacterial mixed cultures in a soil/water system. Int Biodeter Biodegr 85:671–682

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Demiray AD, Yolcubal I, Akyol NH, Cobanoglu G (2012) Biomonitoring of airborne metals using the Lichen Xanthoria parietina in Kocaeli Province, Turkey. Ecol Indic 18:632–643

    Google Scholar 

  • de Wit (2002) C.A. An overview of brominated flame retardants in the environment. Chemosphere 46:583–674

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gao S, Hong J, Yu Z, Wang J, Yang G, Sheng G, Fu J (2011) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in surface soils from e-waste recycling areas and industrial areas in South China: Concentration levels, congener profile, and inventory. Environ Toxicol Chem 30:2688–2696

  • Gokbulak F, Ozcan M (2008) Hydro-physical properties of soils developed from different parent materials. Geoderma 145:376–380

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guvenc N, Alagha O, Tuncel G (2003) Investigation of soil multi-element composition in Antalya. Turkey Environ Int 29:631–640

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harner T, Shoeib M (2002) Measurements of octanol-air partition coefficients (K OA) for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs): predicting partitioning in the environment. J Chem Eng Data 45:1069–1074

    Google Scholar 

  • Hassanin A, Breivik K, Meijer SN, Steinnes E, Thomas GO, Jones KC (2004) PBDEs in European background soils: levels and factors controlling their distribution. Environ Sci Technol 38:738–745

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hellweg S, Fischer U, Hofstetter TB, Hungerbühler K (2005) Site-dependent fate assessment in LCA: transport of heavy metals in soil. J Clean Prod 13:341–361

    Google Scholar 

  • Hippelein M, Mclachlan MS (1998) Soil/air partitioning of semivolatile organic compounds. 1. Method development and influence of physical-chemical properties. Environ Sci Technol 32:310–316

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoh E, Hites RA (2005) Brominated flame retardants in the atmosphere of the East- Central United States. Environ Sci Technol 39:7794–7802

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jiang YF, Wang XT, Zhu K, Wub MH, Sheng GY, Fu JM (2010) Occurrence, compositional profiles and possible sources of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in urban soils of Shanghai, China. Chemosphere 80:131–136

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leung AOW, Luksemburg WJ, Wong AS, Wong MH (2007) Spatial distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in soil and combusted residue at Guiyu, an electronic waste recycling site in Southeast China. Environ Sci Technol 41:2730–2737

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li Y-F, Harner T, Liu L, Zhang Z, Ren N-Q, Jia H, Ma J, Sverko E (2010) Polychlorinated biphenyls in global air and surface soil: distributions, air-soil exchange, and fractionation effect. Environ Sci Technol 44:2784–2790

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luo Y, Luo XJ, Lin Z, Chen SJ, Liu J, Mai BX, Yang ZY (2009) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in road and farmland soils from an e-waste recycling region in southern China: concentrations, source profiles, and potential dispersion and deposition. Sci Total Environ 407:1105–1113

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ma J, Addink R, Yun S, Cheng JG, Wang W, Kanan K (2009) Polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans and polybrominated diphenyl ethers in soil, vegetation, workshop-floor dust, and electronic shredder residue from an electronic waste recycling facility and in soils from a chemical industrial complex in Eastern China. Environ Sci Technol 43:7350–7356

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mason B (1966) Principles of Geochemistry, 3rd edn. J. Wiley and Sons, NY

    Google Scholar 

  • Meng X-Z, Pan Z-Y, Wu J-J, Qiu Y-L, Chen L, Li G-M (2011) Occurrence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in soil from the central Loess Plateau, China: role of regional range atmospheric transport. Chemosphere 83:1391–1397

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Odabasi M, Bayram A, Elbir T, Seyfioglu R, Dumanoglu Y, Bozlaker A, Demircioglu H, Altiok H, Yatkin S, Cetin B (2009) Electric arc furnaces for steel-making: hot spots for persistent organic pollutants. Environ Sci Technol 43:5205–5211

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Odabasi M, Bayram A, Elbir T, Seyfioglu R, Dumanoglu Y, Ornektekin S (2010) Investigation of soil concentrations of persistent organic pollutants, trace elements, and anions due to iron–steel plant emissions in an industrial region in Turkey. Water Air Soil Poll 213:375–388

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ozbay B, Keskin GA, Dogruparmak SC, Ayberk S (2011) Predicting tropospheric ozone concentrations in different temporal scales by using multilayer perceptron models. Ecol Inform 6:242–247

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ter Schure AFH, Agrell C, Bokenstrand A, Sveder J, Larsson P, Zegers BN (2004) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers at a solid waste incineration plant II: atmospheric deposition. Atmos Environ 38:5149–5155

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Viana M, Amato F, Alastuey A, Querol X, Moreno T, Santos SGD, Herce MD, Fernández-Patier R (2009) Chemical tracers of particulate emissions from commercial shipping. Environ Sci Technol 43:7472–7477

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yatkin S, Bayram A (2011) Investigation of chemical compositions of urban, industrial, agricultural, and rural top-soils in Izmir. Turkey. Clean-Soil Air Water 39:522–529

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yay OD, Alagha O, Tuncel G (2008) Multivariate statistics to investigate metal contamination in surface soil. J Environ Manage 86:581–594

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yaylali-Abanuz G (2011) Heavy metal contamination of surface soil around Gebze industrial area. Turkey. Microchem J 99:82–92

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao M, Zhang Y, Ma W, Fu Q, Yang X, Li C, Zhou B, Yu Q, Chen L (2013) Characteristics and ship traffic source identification of air pollutants in China’s largest port. Atmos Environ 64:277–286

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zou MY, Ran Y, Gong J, Mai BX, Zeng EY (2007) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in watershed soils of the Pearl River Delta, China: occurrence, inventory, and fate. Environ Sci Technol 41:8262–8267

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This study was supported in part by the scientific research fund of Gebze Institute of Technology (project no.: 2010-A-31). I would like to thank Mustafa Odabasi and Melik Kara (Dokuz Eylul University) for their help during analysis. Also, I would like to thank Fatma Ozturk (Abant Izzet Baysal University) and Meltem Celen (Gebze Institute of Technology) for their support.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Gebze Institute of Technology, Kocaeli, Turkey

    Banu Cetin

Authors
  1. Banu Cetin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Banu Cetin.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Leif Kronberg

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

ESM 1

(DOC 95 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Cetin, B. Soil concentrations and source apportionment of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and trace elements around a heavily industrialized area in Kocaeli, Turkey. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21, 8284–8293 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2825-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2825-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation