Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Aquatic biomonitoring of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in peninsular Malaysia

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Environmental Science and Pollution Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

    We’re sorry, something doesn't seem to be working properly.

    Please try refreshing the page. If that doesn't work, please contact support so we can address the problem.

Abstract

An aquatic biomonitoring of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in river water corresponding to five villages situated in three states in peninsular Malaysia was determined. There were 51.3 % (20/39) and 23.1 % (9/39) samples positive for Giardia and Cryptosporidium (oo)cysts, respectively. Overall mean concentration between villages for Giardia cysts ranged from 0.10 to 25.80 cysts/l whilst Cryptosporidium oocysts ranged from 0.10 to 0.90 oocysts/l. Detailed results of the river samples from five villages indicated that Kuala Pangsun 100 % (9/9), Kemensah 77.8 % (7/9), Pos Piah 33.3 % (3/9) and Paya Lebar 33.3 % (1/3) were contaminated with Giardia cysts whilst Cryptosporidium (oo)cysts were only detected in Kemensah (100 %; 9/9) and Kuala Pangsun (66.6 %; 6/9). However, the water samples from Bentong were all negative for these waterborne parasites. Samples were collected from lower point, midpoint and upper point. Midpoint refers to the section of the river where the studied communities are highly populated. Meanwhile, the position of the lower point is at least 2 km southward of the midpoint and upper point is at least 2 km northward of the midpoint. The highest mean concentration for (oo)cysts was found at the lower points [3.15 ± 6.09 (oo)cysts/l], followed by midpoints [0.66 ± 1.10 (oo)cysts/l] and upper points [0.66 ± 0.92 (oo)cysts/l]. The mean concentration of Giardia cysts was highest at Kuala Pangsun (i.e. 5.97 ± 7.0 cysts/l), followed by Kemensah (0.83 ± 0.81 cysts/l), Pos Piah (0.20 ± 0.35 cysts/l) and Paya Lebar (0.10 ± 0.19 cysts/l). On the other hand, the mean concentration of Cryptosporidium oocysts was higher at Kemensah (0.31 ± 0.19 cysts/l) compared to Kuala Pangsun (0.03 ± 0.03cysts/l). All the physical and chemical parameters did not show significant correlation with both protozoa. In future, viability status and molecular characterisation of Giardia and Cryptosporidium should be applied to identify species and genotypes/subgenotypes for better understanding of the epidemiology of these waterborne parasites.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.

References

  • Ahmad RA, Chan KH (1994) The occurrence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium spin well water (Abstract). Kuala Lumpur: 30th Annual Scientific Seminar of Malaysian Society of Parasitology and Tropical Medicine, 29 January 1994

  • Ahmad RA, Lee E, Tan ITL, Mohamad-Kamel AG (1997) Occurrence of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in raw and treated water from two water treatment plants in Selangor, Malaysia. Water Resour 31:3132–3136

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arsad A, Abustan I, Rawi CSM, Syafalni (2012) Integrating biological aspects into river water quality research in Malaysia—an opinion. Elixir Pollut 40:5267–5276

    Google Scholar 

  • Azman J, Init I, Wan Yusoff WS (2009) Occurrence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium (oo)cysts in the river water of two recreational areas in Selangor, Malaysia. Trop Biomed 26:289–302

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carey CM, Lee H, Trevors (2004) Biology, persistence and detection of Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis oocyst. Water Res 38:818–862

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Castro-Hermida JA, García-Presedo I, Almeida A, González-Warleta CJMCD, Mezo M (2009) Detection of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in surface water: a health risk for humans and animals. Water Res 43:4133–4142

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Corso PS, Kramer MH, Blair KA, Addiss DG, Davis JP, Haddix AC (2003) Cost of illness in the 1993 waterborne Cryptosporidium outbreak, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Emerg Infect Dis 9:426–431

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farizawati S, Lim YAL, Ahmad RA, Fatimah CTNI, Siti-Nor Y (2005) Contribution of cattle farms towards river contamination with Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in Sungai Langat Basin. Trop Biomed 22:89–98

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fayer R, Morgan U, Upton SJ (2000) Epidemiology of Cryptosporidium: transmission, detection and identification. Int J Parasitol 30:1305–1322

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Feltus DC, Giddings CW, Schneck BL, Monson T, Warchauer D, McEvoy JM (2006) Evidence supporting zoonotic transmission of Cryptosporidium spp. in Wisconsin. J Clin Microbiol 44:4303–4308

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garber LP, Salman MD, Hurd HS, Keefe T (1994) Potential risk factors for Cryptosporidium infection in dairy calves. J Am Vet Med Assoc 205:86–89

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Human Development Reports (2006) Beyond scarcity: power, poverty and the global water crisis. http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2006/chapters/. Accessed 14 July 2012a

  • Khan SM, Debnath C, Pramanik AK, Xiao L, Nozaki T, Ganguly S (2011) Molecular evidence of zoonotic transmission of Giardia duodenalis among dairy farm workers in West Bengal, India. Vet Parasitol 178:342–345

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koompapong K, Sukthana Y (2012) Seasonal variation and potential sources of Cryptosporidium contamination in surface waters of Chao Phraya River and Bang Pu Nature Reserve pier, Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Publ Health 43:832–840

    Google Scholar 

  • Learmonth JJ, Ionas G, Ebbett KA, Kwan ES (2004) Genetic characterization and transmission cycles of Cryptosporidium species isolated from human in New Zealand. Appl Environ Microbiol 70:3973–3978

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lebbad M, Petersson I, Karlsson L, Botero-Kleiven S, Andersson JO, Svenungsson B, Svärd SG (2011) Multilocus genotyping of human Giardia isolates suggests limited zoonotic transmission and association between assemblage B and flatulence in children. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 5:e1262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lim YAL, Ahmad RA, Ali O, Zulkeflie Z (1999) Survival of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in river and soil environments. Trop Biomed 16:7–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Lim YAL, Ahmad RA (2001) Occurrence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium oocysts in rodents in the vicinity of the Temuan Orang Asli community. Malays Appl Biol 30:39–45

    Google Scholar 

  • Lim YAL, Ahmad RA (2004a) Contamination of Temuan Orang Asli (Aborigine) household water with faecally-transmitted parasite. Malays Appl Biol 33:1–6

    Google Scholar 

  • Lim YAL, Ahmad RA (2004b) Occurrence of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in the Temuan orang Asli (aborigine) river system. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Publ Health 35:801–810

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lim YAL, Wan Hafiz WI, Nissapatorn V (2007) Reduction of Cryptosporidium and Giardia by sewage treatment processes. Trop Biomed 24:95–104

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lim YAL, Ahmad RA, Smith HV (2008) Current status and future trends in Cryptosporidium and Giardia epidemiology in Malaysia. J Water Health 6:239–254

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lim YAL, Lai MM, Mahdy MAK, Mat Naim HR, Smith HV (2009a) Molecular detection of Giardia contamination in water bodies in a zoo. Environ Res 109:857–859

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lim YAL, Sharmila DR, Mahdy MAK, Wan Yusoff WS, Smith HV (2009b) Detection and molecular characterization of Giardia isolated from recreational lake water in Malaysia. Parasitol Res 106:289–291

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luján HD, Mowatt MR, Nash TE (1998) The molecular mechanisms of Giardia encystations. Parasitol Today 14:446–450

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mac Kenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson DE (1994) A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med 331:161–167

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McCluskey BJ, Greiner EC, Donovan GA (1995) Patterns of Cryptosporidium oocysts shedding in calves and a comparison of two diagnostic methods. Vet Parasitol 60:185–190

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meinhardt PL, Casemor DP, Miller KB (1996) Epidemiologic aspects of human cryptosporidiosis and the role of waterborne transmission. Epidemiol Rev 18:118–136

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mahdy MAK, Surin J, Lim YAL, Hesham Al- Mekhlafi MS (2007) Current status of Giardia and Cryptosporidium among Orang Asli (aborigine) communities in Pahang, Malaysia. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Publ Health 38:27–31

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahdy MAK, Lim YAL, Surin J, Wan KL, Hesham Al-Mekhlafi MS (2008) Risk factors for endemic giardiasis: highlighting the possible association of contaminated water and food. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 102:465–470

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monis PT, Thompson RCA (2003) Cryptosporidium and Giardia-zoonoses: fact or fiction? Infect, Genet Evol 3:233–244

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Norhayati M, Fatmah MS, Yusof S, Edariah AB (2003) Intestinal parasitic infections in man: a review. Med J Malaysia 58:296–305

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Othman F, Alaa Eldin ME, Mohamed I (2012) Trend analysis of a tropical urban river water quality in Malaysia. J Environ Monit 14:3164–3173

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prüss-Üstün A, Bos R, Gore F, Bartram J (2008) Safer water, better health: costs, benefits and sustainability of interventions to protect and promote health. World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Srisuphanunt M, Karanis P, Charoenca N, Boonkhao N, Ongerth JE (2010) Cryptosporidium and Giardia detection in environmental waters of southwest coastal areas of Thailand. Parasitol Res 106:1299–1306

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tan ITL (1998) Pengesanan protozoa pathogen di tiga buah loji pembersihan air di Negeri Sembilan. Universiti Kebangsan Malaysia, Tesis Sarjana Sains

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA (2012) Method 1623.1: Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Water by Filtration/IMS/FA. http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/sdwa/lt2/lab_home.cfm. Accessed 10 July 2012

  • Asia, WEPA (Water Environment Partnership in Asia) (2006) National Water Quality Standards in Malaysia http://www.wepa-db.net/policies/law/malaysia/eq_surface.htm. Accessed 8 June 2012

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors express their sincere gratitude to the Ministry of Rural Development for giving entry approval. This research work was funded by the University of Malaya Postgraduate Research grant (PV024/2011B) and MOHE HIR (E000051-20001). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

    Soo Ching Lee, Romano Ngui, Tiong Kai Tan, Muhammad Aidil Roslan, Init Ithoi & Yvonne AL Lim

Authors
  1. Soo Ching Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Romano Ngui
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Tiong Kai Tan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Muhammad Aidil Roslan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Init Ithoi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Yvonne AL Lim
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yvonne AL Lim.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Lee, S.C., Ngui, R., Tan, T.K. et al. Aquatic biomonitoring of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in peninsular Malaysia. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21, 445–453 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-1925-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-1925-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation