Skip to main content

Evaluation of olive oil mill wastewater toxicity on spinach

Environmental Science and Pollution Research volume 19, pages 2363–2371 (2012)Cite this article

Abstract

Background, aim, and scope

Olive oil mill wastewater (OMW), a by-product of the olive oil extraction process, is annually produced in huge amounts in olive-growing areas and represents a significant environmental problem in Mediterranean areas. We studied the impact of OMW dilutions (1:20 and 1:10) on spinach plants in order to evaluate OMW dilutions as a low-cost alternative method for the disposal of this waste.

Materials and methods

The effects of OMW dilutions were evaluated on seed germination, shoot and root elongation, biomass production, nutrient uptake and translocation, ascorbic acid content, polyphenols, photosynthetic pigments, and photosynthetic performance of spinach.

Results

Plant biomass was more affected than plant height and total chlorophyll; carotenoid and ascorbic acid content progressively decreased with decreasing OMW dilution. Exposure to both OMW dilutions resulted in overaccumulation of total polyphenols, which were negatively correlated to plant biomass and nutrients. Nutrient (Fe, Ca, and Mg) content was insufficient leading to reduced growth. Water use efficiency decreased mainly due to decreased CO2 assimilation rate rather than to a decline of transpiration rate. Disturbances in photosystem II (PSII) photochemical efficiency could be better envisaged by the ratio between variable fluorescence and initial fluorescence (Fv/Fo), which showed much greater amplitude than the maximal photochemical efficiency of PSII photochemistry (Fv/Fm).

Conclusions

From the data obtained, it is suggested that 1:20 OMW dilutions are still phytotoxic and that higher OMW dilutions should be used in order to use this waste for the irrigation of spinach plants.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

43,34 €

Price includes VAT (Finland)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

References

  • Association of Official Seed Analysts (1981) Rules for testing seeds. J Seed Technol 6:1–126

    Google Scholar 

  • Aviani I, Raviv M, Hadar Y, Saadi I, Laor Y (2009) Original and residual phytotoxicity of olive mill wastewater revealed by fractionations before and after incubation with Pleurotus ostreatus. J Agric Food Chem 57:11254–11260

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ayaz FA, Torun H, Ayaz S, Correia PJ, Alaiz M, Sanz C, Gruz J, Strnad M (2007) Determination of chemical composition of Anatolian carob pod (Ceratonia siliqua L.): sugars, amino and organic acids, minerals and phenolic compounds. J Food Quality 30:1040–1055

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Balsberg-Påhlsson AM (1989) Mineral nutrients, carbohydrates and phenolic compounds in leaves of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in southern Sweden as related to environmental factors. Tree Physiol 5:485–495

    Google Scholar 

  • Balsberg-Påhlsson AM (1990) Influence of aluminium on biomass, nutrients, soluble carbohydrates and phenols in beech (Fagus sylvatica). Physiol Plantarum 78:79–84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balsberg-Påhlsson AM (1992) Influence of nitrogen fertilization on minerals, carbohydrates, amino acids and phenolic compounds in beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) leaves. Tree Physiol 10:93–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Ben Sassi A, Boularbah A, Jaouad A, Walker G, Boussaid A (2006) A comparison of olive oil mill wastewaters (OMW) from three different processes in Morocco. Process Biochem 41:74–78

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bernacchi CJ, Portis AR, Nakano H, Von Caemmerer S, Long SP (2002) Temperature response of mesophyll conductance. Implications for the determination of rubisco enzyme kinetics and for limitations to photosynthesis in vivo. Plant Physiol 130:1992–1998

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Capasso R, Cristinzio G, Evidente A, Scognamiglio F (1992) Isolation, spectroscopy and selective phytotoxic effects of polyphenols from vegetable waste waters. Phytochemistry 31:4125–4128

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Capasso R, De Martino A, Arienzo M (2002) Recovery and characterization of the metal polymeric organic fraction (polymerin) from olive oil mill wastewaters. J Agric Food Chem 50:2846–2855

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cardinali A, Cicco N, Linsalata V, Minervini F, Pati S, Pieralice M, Tursi N, Lattanzio V (2010) Biological activity of high molecular weight phenolics from olive mill wastewater. J Agric Food Chem 58:8585–8590

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Casa R, D'Annibale A, Pieruccetti F, Stazi SR, Sermanni GG, Lo Cascio B (2003) Reduction of the phenolic components in olive-mill wastewater by an enzymatic treatment and its impact on durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) germinability. Chemosphere 50:959–966

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cegarra J, Paredes C, Roig A, Bernal MP, Garcia D (1996) Use of olive wastewater composts for crop production. Int Biodeter Biodegr 38:193–203

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chartzoulakis K, Psarras G, Moutsopoulou M, Stefanoudaki E (2010) Application of olive mill wastewater to a Cretan olive orchard: effects on soil properties, plant performance and the environment. Agric Ecosyst Environ 138:293–298

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Della Greca M, Monaco P, Pinto G, Pollio A, Previtera L, Temessi F (2001) Phytotoxicity of low molecular weight phenols from olive mill waste waters. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 67:352–359

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Di Giovacchino L, Basti C, Costantini ML, Ferrante ML, Surrichio G (2001) Effects of olive mill waste water spreading on soil cultivated with maize and grapevine. Agric Med 131:33–41

    Google Scholar 

  • Drazkiewicz M, Baszynski T (2008) Calcium protection of PS2 complex of Phaseolus coccineus from cadmium toxicity: in vivo study. Envir Exp Bot 64:8–14

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • El Hadrami A, Belaqziz M, El Hassni M, Hanifi S, Abbad A, Capasso R, Gianfreda L, El Hadrami I (2004) Physico-chemical characterization and effects of olive oil mill wastewaters fertirrigation on the growth of some Mediterranean crops. J Agron 3:247–254

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • El Hassani FZ, Bendriss Amraoui M, Zinedine A, Aissam H, Mdaghri Alaoui S, Merzouki M, Benlemlih M (2009a) Changes in leaf phenols and other physiological parameters of peppermint in response to olive mill wastewater application. Int J Agric Biol 11:413–418

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • El Hassani FZ, Zinedine A, Bendriss Amraoui M, Errachidi F, Mdaghri Alaoui S, Aissam H, Merzouki M, Benlemlih M (2009b) Characterization of the harmful effect of olive mill wastewater on spearmint. J Hazard Mater 170:779–785

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • El Hassani FZ, Zinedine A, Mdaghri Alaoui S, Merzouki M, Benlemlih M (2010) Use of olive mill wastewater as an organic amendment for Mentha spicata L. Ind Crop Prod 2:343–348

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giannakoula A, Moustakas M, Mylona P, Papadakis I, Yupsanis T (2008) Aluminium tolerance in maize is correlated with increased levels of mineral nutrients, carbohydrates and proline and decreased levels of lipid peroxidation and Al accumulation. J Plant Physiol 165:385–396

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ginos A, Manios T, Mantzavinos D (2006) Treatment of olive mill effluents by coagulation-flocculation-hydrogen peroxide oxidation and effect on phytotoxicity. J Hazard Mater 133:135–142

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hafidi M, Amir S, Revel JC (2005) Structural characterization of olive mill waster-water after aerobic digestion using elemental analysis, FTIR and C-13 NMR. Process Biochem 40:2615–2622

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hankamer B, Barbers J, Boekema EJ (1997) Structure and membrane organization of photosystem II in green plants. Annu Rev Plant Phys 48:641–675

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Havaux M (1988) Carotenoids as membrane stabilizers in chloroplasts. Trends Plant Sci 4:147–151

    Google Scholar 

  • Havaux M, Lütz C, Grimm B (2003) Chloroplast membrane photostability in chlP trangenic tobacco plants deficient in tocopherols. Plant Physiol 132:300–310

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt EJ, Smith TA (1975) Plant mineral nutrition. English Universities Press Ltd, Great Britain, pp 145–175

    Google Scholar 

  • Huner NPA, Maxwell DP, Gray GR, Savitch LV, Krol M, Ivanov AG, Falk S (1996) Sensing environmental temperature change through imbalances between energy supply and energy consumption: redox state of photosystem II. Physiol Plantarum 98:358–364

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Justino C, Marques AG, Duarte KR, Duarte AC, Pereira R, Rocha-Santos T, Freitas AC (2010) Degradation of phenols in olive oil mill wastewater by biological, enzymatic, and photo-Fenton oxidation. Environ Sci Pollut Res 17:650–656

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Komilis DP, Karatzas E, Halvadakis CP (2005) The effect of olive mill wastewater on seed germination after various pretreatment techniques. J Environ Manage 74:339–348

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krause GH, Weis E (1991) Chlorophyll fluorescence and photosynthesis: the basics. Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 42:313–349

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lefsrud MG, Kopsell DA, Kopsell DE, Curran-Celentano J (2006) Irradiance levels affect growth parameters and carotenoid pigments in kale and spinach grown in a controlled environment. Physiol Plantarum 127:624–631

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lichtenthaler HK, Buschmann C (2001) Chlorophylls and carotenoids: measurement and characterization by UV–VIS. In: Wrolstad RE et al (eds) Current protocols in food analytical chemistry (CPFA), supplement 1. Wiley, New York, pp F4.3.1–F4.3.8

    Google Scholar 

  • Lichtenthaler HK, Rinderle U (1988) The role of chlorophyll fluorescence in the detection of stress conditions in plants. Crit Rev Anal Chem 19:S29–S85

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mantzavinos D, Kalogerakis N (2005) Treatment of olive mill effluents, part I. Organic matter degradation by chemical and biological processes: an overview. Environ Int 31:289–295

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martins F, Gomes-Laranjo J, Amaral C, Almeida J, Peixoto F (2008) Evaluation of olive oil mill wastewaters acute toxicity: a study on the mitochondrial bioenergetics. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 69:480–487

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mechri B, Ben Mariem F, Braham M, Ben Elhadj S, Hammami M (2008) Change in soil properties and the soil microbial community following land spreading of olive mill wastewater affects olive trees key physiological parameters and the abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Soil Biol Biochem 40:152–161

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mechri B, Issaoui M, Echbili A, Chehab H, Mariem FB, Braham M, Hammami M (2009) Olive orchard amended with olive mill wastewater: effects on olive fruit and olive oil quality. J Hazard Mater 172:1544–1550

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mechri B, Cheheb H, Boussadia O, Attia F, Mariem FB, Braham M, Hammami M (2011) Effects of agronomic application of olive mill wastewater in a field of olive trees on carbohydrate profiles, chlorophyll a fluorescence and mineral nutrient content. Environ Exp Bot 71:184–191

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mekki A, Dhouib A, Aloui F, Sayadi S (2006) Olive wastewater as an ecological fertilizer. Agron Sustain Develop 26:61–67

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ouzounidou G, Constantinidou HA (1999) Changes in growth and physiology of tobacco and cotton under Ag exposure and recovery: are they of direct or indirect nature? Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 37:480–487

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ouzounidou G, Moustakas M, Strasser R (1997) Sites of action of copper in the photosynthetic apparatus of maize leaves: kinetic analysis of chlorophyll fluorescence oxygen evolution, absorption changes and thermal dissipation as monitored by photoacoustic signals. Aust J Plant Physiol 24:81–90

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ouzounidou G, Moustakas M, Symeonidis L, Karataglis S (2006) Response of wheat seedlings to Ni stress: effects of supplemental calcium. Arch Environ Con Tox 50:346–352

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ouzounidou G, Asfi M, Sortirakis N, Papadopoulou P, Gaitis F (2008) Olive millwastewater triggered changes in physiology and nutritional quality of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) depending on growth substrate. J Hazard Mater 158:523–530

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ouzounidou G, Zervakis GI, Gaitis F (2010) Raw and microbiologically detoxified olive mill waste and their impact on plant growth. Terr Aquatic Environ Toxicol 4 (special Issue 1):21–38

  • Ouzounidou G, Zervakis GI, Ntougias S, Asfi M, Gaitis F (2012) Raw and fungal-treated olive-mill wastewater effects on selected parameters of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) growth—the role of proline. J Environ Sci Heal B (in press)

  • Paredes C, Cegarra J, Roig A, Sanchez-Monedero MA, Bernal MP (1999) Characterisation of olive mill wastewater (alpechin) and its sludge for agricultural purposes. Bioresource Technol 67:111–115

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peixoto F, Martins F, Amaral C, Gomes-Laranjo J, Almeida J, Palmeira CM (2008) Evaluation of olive oil mill wastewater toxicity on the mitochondrial bioenergetics after treatment with Candida oleophila. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 70:266–275

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rengel Z, Robinson DL (1989) Competitive Al3+ inhibition of net Mg2+ uptake by intact Lolium multiflorum roots. I. Kinetics. Plant Physiol 91:1407–1413

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rinaldi M, Rana G, Introna M (2003) Olive mill wastewater spreading in southern Italy: effects on a durum wheat crop. Field Crops Res 84:319–326

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rothe GM, Weil H, Geider M, Pfennig P, Wilhelmi V, Maurer VD (1988) Nutrient element and carbohydrate status of Norway spruce at Mt. Kleiner Feldberg in Taunus exposed to air and soil acidification. Eur J For Path 18:98–111

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rouvalis A, Iliopoulou-Georgudaki J (2010) Comparative assessment of olive oil mill effluents from three-phase and two-phase systems, treated for hydrogen production. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 85:432–436

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saadi I, Laor Y, Raviv M, Medina S (2007) Land spreading of olive mill wastewater: effects on soil microbial activity and potential phytotoxicity. Chemosphere 66:75–83

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shah AR, Khan TM, Sadaqat HA, Chatha AA (2011) Alterations in leaf pigments in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) genotypes subjected to drought stress conditions. Int J Agric Biol 13:902–908

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smirnoff N (1996) The function and metabolism of ascorbic acid in plants. Ann Bot London 78:661–669

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Telfer A (2005) Too much light? How b-carotene protects the photosystem II reaction center. Photoch Photobio Sci 4:950–956

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Von Caemmerer SV, Farquhar GD (1981) Some relationships between the biochemistry of photosynthesis and gas exchange of leaves. Planta 153:376–387

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wulff-Zotelle C, Gatzke N, Kopka J, Orellana A, Hoefgen R, Fisahn J, Hesse H (2010) Photosynthesis and metabolism interact during acclimation of Arabidopsis thaliana to high irradiance and sulphur depletion. Plant Cell Environ 33:1974–1988

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang D, Hendricks DG, Mahoney AW (1989) Bioavailability of total iron from meat, spinach (Spinacea oleracea L.) and meat-spinach mixtures by anaemic and non-anaemic rats. Br J Nutr 61:331–343

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the European Union (75%) and the Hellenic General Secretariat for Research and Technology (25%), under the project “Biological treatment and valorization of olive mill wastewaters: mechanisms and integrated applications” (code: FP66).

Author information

Affiliations

  1. Institute of Food Technology, National Agricultural Research Foundation, 14123, Lycovrissi, Greece

    Maria Asfi & Georgia Ouzounidou

  2. Department of Botany, School of Biology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece

    Maria Asfi & Michael Moustakas

Authors
  1. Maria Asfi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Georgia Ouzounidou
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Michael Moustakas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael Moustakas.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Zhihong Xu

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Asfi, M., Ouzounidou, G. & Moustakas, M. Evaluation of olive oil mill wastewater toxicity on spinach. Environ Sci Pollut Res 19, 2363–2371 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-012-0746-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-012-0746-y

Keywords

  • Chlorophyll fluorescence
  • Nutrients
  • Olive oil mill wastewater
  • Photosynthesis
  • Polyphenols
  • Toxicity