Abstract
Background
The Atacama Desert in Northern Chile is one of the most arid places on earth. However, fog occurs regularly at the coastal mountain range and can be collected at different sites in Chile to supply settlements at the coast with freshwater. This is also planned in the fog oasis Alto Patache (20°49′S, 70°09′W). For this pilot study, we collected fog water samples in July and August 2008 for chemical analysis to find indications for its suitability for domestic use.
Methods
Fog water samples were taken with a cylindrical scientific fog collector and from the net and the storage tank of a Large Fog Collector (LFC).
Results
The pHs of advective fog, originating from the stratus cloud deck over the Eastern Pacific, varied between 2.9 and 3.5. Orographic fog, which was formed locally, exhibited a pH of 2.5. About 50% of the total ionic concentration was due to sea salt. High percentages of sulfate and very high enrichment factors (versus sea salt) of heavy metals were found. Both backward trajectories and the enrichment factors indicate that the high concentrations of ions and heavy metals in fog were influenced by anthropogenic activities along the Chilean Pacific Coast such as power plants, mining, and steel industry.
Conclusions
We found no direct indication for the importance of other sources such as the emission of dimethyl sulfide from the ocean and subsequent atmospheric oxidation for acidity and sulfate or soil erosion for heavy metal concentrations. When fog water was collected by the LFC, it apparently picked up large amounts of dry deposition which accumulated on the nets during fog-free periods. This material is rinsed off the collector shortly after the onset of a fog event with the water collected first. During the first flush, some concentrations of acidity, nitrate, As, and Se, largely exceeded the Chilean drinking water limits. Before any use of fog water for domestic purpose, its quality should be checked on a regular basis. Strategies to mitigate fog water pollution are given.
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Acknowledgement
We are grateful for the help of the Atacama Desert Center and the Pontificia Universidad Católida de Chile, especially Pilar Cereceda, Ruth Hoffman, Horacio Larrain, Martha Larrain, Pablo Osses, Luis Perez, Rosario Valenzuela, and Pablo Vidal for their strong support during the field campaign and intense discussions during data analysis. Free access to the NOAA Air Resources Laboratory internet platform for sharing their HYSPLIT-4 trajectory model is gratefully acknowledged. Free access to NOAA GEOS12-satellite images (Figs. 2 and 3) was also very helpful. Robert S. Schemenauer gave valuable comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. We also thank Lillian Harris for language editing of the manuscript. Three anonymous reviewers helped to increase the quality of the manuscript. Thank you!
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Sträter, E., Westbeld, A. & Klemm, O. Pollution in coastal fog at Alto Patache, Northern Chile. Environ Sci Pollut Res 17, 1563–1573 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-010-0343-x
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-010-0343-x