Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Derivation of motor vehicle tailpipe particle emission factors suitable for modelling urban fleet emissions and air quality assessments

  • AREA 6.3 • METHODS, MODELING, MONITORING OF CHEMICALS • RESEARCH ARTICLE
  • Published:
Environmental Science and Pollution Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Background, aim and scope

Urban motor vehicle fleets are a major source of particulate matter pollution, especially of ultrafine particles (diameters < 0.1 µm), and exposure to particulate matter has known serious health effects. A considerable body of literature is available on vehicle particle emission factors derived using a wide range of different measurement methods for different particle sizes, conducted in different parts of the world. Therefore, the choice as to which are the most suitable particle emission factors to use in transport modelling and health impact assessments presented as a very difficult task. The aim of this study was to derive a comprehensive set of tailpipe particle emission factors for different vehicle and road type combinations, covering the full size range of particles emitted, which are suitable for modelling urban fleet emissions.

Materials and methods

A large body of data available in the international literature on particle emission factors for motor vehicles derived from measurement studies was compiled and subjected to advanced statistical analysis, to determine the most suitable emission factors to use in modelling urban fleet emissions.

Results

This analysis resulted in the development of five statistical models which explained 86%, 93%, 87%, 65% and 47% of the variation in published emission factors for particle number, particle volume, PM1, PM2.5 and PM10, respectively. A sixth model for total particle mass was proposed but no significant explanatory variables were identified in the analysis. From the outputs of these statistical models, the most suitable particle emission factors were selected. This selection was based on examination of the statistical robustness of the statistical model outputs, including consideration of conservative average particle emission factors with the lowest standard errors, narrowest 95% confidence intervals and largest sample sizes and the explanatory model variables, which were vehicle type (all particle metrics), instrumentation (particle number and PM2.5), road type (PM10) and size range measured and speed limit on the road (particle volume).

Discussion

A multiplicity of factors need to be considered in determining emission factors that are suitable for modelling motor vehicle emissions, and this study derived a set of average emission factors suitable for quantifying motor vehicle tailpipe particle emissions in developed countries.

Conclusions

The comprehensive set of tailpipe particle emission factors presented in this study for different vehicle and road type combinations enable the full size range of particles generated by fleets to be quantified, including ultrafine particles (measured in terms of particle number). These emission factors have particular application for regions which may have a lack of funding to undertake measurements, or insufficient measurement data upon which to derive emission factors for their region.

Recommendations and perspectives

In urban areas motor vehicles continue to be a major source of particulate matter pollution and of ultrafine particles. It is critical that in order to manage this major pollution source methods are available to quantify the full size range of particles emitted for transport modelling and health impact assessments.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abu-Allaban M (2002) Exhaust particle size distribution measurements at the Tuscarora Mountain tunnel. Aerosol Sci Techno 36(6):771–789

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Abu-Allaban M, Gillies JA, Gertler AW (2003a) Application of a multi-lag regression approach to determine on-road PM10 and PM2.5 emission rates. Atmos Environ 37(37):5157–5164

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Abu-Allaban M, Gillies JA, Gertler AW, Clayton R, Proffitt D (2003b) Tailpipe, resuspended road dust, and brake-wear emission factors from on-road vehicles. Atmos Environ 37(37):5283–5293

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ahlvik P, Eggleston S, Goriben N, Hassel D, Hickman AJ, Joumard R, Ntziachristos L, Rijkeboer R, Samaras Z, Zierock K.H (1997) COPERT II Computer programme to calculate emissions from road transport: methodology and emission factors. Technical report prepared by the European Environment Agency, Copenhagen. Report No. 6

  • ARB's (2002) Study of Emissions from Two ‘Late Model’ Diesel and CNG Heavy-Duty Transit Buses. California Air Resources Board, 12th CRC On-Road Vehicle Emissions Workshop, April 15–17, San Diego

  • Ayala A, Kado NY, Okamoto RA (2002) Diesel and CNG Heavy-duty Transit Bus Emissions over Multiple Driving Schedules: Regulated Pollutants and Project Overview. Society of Automotive Engineers SAE 2002-01-17221-13

  • Bradley MJ (2000) Hybrid-Electric Drive Heavy-Duty Vehicle Testing Project; Final Emissions Report. Northeast Advanced Vehicle Consortium, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, West Virginia University, USA

  • Bellasio R, Bianconi R, Corda G, Cucca P (2007) Emission inventory for the road transport sector in Sardinia (Italy). Atmos Environ 41:677–691

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cadle SH, Mulawa PA, Ball J, Donase C, Weibel A, Sagebiel JC, Knapp KT, Snow R (1997) Particulate emission rates from in use high emitting vehicles recruited in Orange County, California. Environ Sci Technol 31(12):3405–3412

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cadle SH, Mulawa P, Groblicki P, Laroo C, Ragazzi RA, Nelson K, Gallagher G, Zielinska B (2001) In-use light-duty gasoline vehicle particulate matter emissions on three driving cycles. Environ Sci Technol 35(1):26–32

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • CARB (2001) Heavy-Duty Emissions Laboratory, Heavy Duty Testing and Field Support Section, California Air Resources Board. Report No. 01-01

  • CARB (2002) EMFAC2001/EMFAC200. Calculating emissions inventories for vehicles in California, User’s Guide, California California Air Resources Board

  • Chatterjee S, Conway R, Lanni T, Frank B, Tang S, Rosenblatt D, Bush C, Lowell D, Evans J, McLean R, Levy S (2002) Performance and Durability Evaluation of Continuously Regenerating Particulate Filters on Diesel Powered Urban Buses at NY City Transit—Part II. Society of Automotive Engineers SAE 2002-01-0430

  • Clark NN, Lyons DW, Bata RM, Gautam M, Wang WG, Norton P, Chandler K (1997) Natural Gas and Diesel Transit Bus Emissions: Review and Recent Data. Society of Automotive Engineers Tech. Pap. No. 973203

  • Clark NN, Lyons DW, Rapp BL, Gautam M, Wang WG, Norton P, White C, Chandler C (1998) Emissions from Trucks and Buses Powered by Cummins L-10 Natural Gas Engines. Society of Automotive Engineers Tech. Pap. No. 981393

  • Clark NN, Gautam M, Rapp BL, Lyons DW, Graboski MS, McCormick RL, Alleman TL, Norton P (1999) Diesel and CNG Transit Bus Emissions Characterization by Two Chassis Dynamometer Laboratories: Results and Issues. Society of Automotive Engineers SAE 1999-01-1469

  • CONCAWE (1998) A study of the number, size & mass of exhaust particles emitted from european diesel and gasoline vehicles under steady-state and european driving cycle conditions. CONCAWE, Brussels Report no. 98/51

  • Corsmeier U, Imhof D, Kohler M, Kuhlwein J, Kurtenbach R, Petrea M, Rosenbohm E, Vogel B, Vogt U (2005) Comparison of measured and model-calculated real-world traffic emissions. Atmos Environ 39(31):5760–5775

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • DOEH (2003) Technical Report No. 1: Toxic Emissions from Diesel Vehicles in Australia, Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra

  • Frey HC, Unal A, Chen J (2002a) Recommended strategy for on-board emission data analysis and collection for the new generation model. Prepared for Office of Transportation and Air Quality, US Environmental Protection Agency

    Google Scholar 

  • Frey HC, Unal A, Chen J, Li S, Xuan C (2002b) Methodology for developing modal emission rates for EPA's multi-scale motor vehicle and equipment emission estimation system, North Carolina State University for the Office of Transportation and Air Quality, US Environmental Protection Agency

  • Gehrig R, Hill M, Buchmann B, Imhof D, Weingartner E, Baltensperger U (2004) Separate determination of PM10 emission factors of road traffic for tailpipe emissions and emissions from abrasion and resuspension processes. Int J Environ Pollut 22(3):312–325

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gertler AW, Gillies JA, Pierson WR, Rogers CF, Sagebiel JC, Abu-Allaban M, Coulombe W, Tarnay L, Cahill TA (2002) Real-World Particulate Matter and Gaseous Emissions from Motor Vehicles in a Highway Tunnel. Health Effects Institute Research Report 107

  • Gidhagen L, Johansson C, Strom J, Kristensson A, Swietlicki E, Pirjola L, Hansson HC (2003) Model simulation of ultrafine particles inside a road tunnel. Atmos Environ 37(15):2023–2036

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gidhagen L, Johansson C, Langner J, Olivares G (2004a) Simulation of NOx and ultrafine particles in a street canyon in Stockholm, Sweden. Atmos Environ 38(14):2029–2044

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gidhagen L, Johansson C, Omstedt G, Langner J, Olivares G (2004b) Model simulations of NOx and ultrafine particles close to a Swedish highway. Environ Sci Technol 38(24):6730–6740

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gillies JA, Gertler AW, Sagebiel JC, Dippel WA (2001) On-road particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) emissions in the Sepulveda Tunnel, Los Angeles, California. Environ Sci Technol 35(6):1054–1063

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gramotnev G, Brown R, Ristovski Z, Hitchins J, Morawska L (2003) Determination of average emission factors for vehicles on a busy road. Atmos Environ 37(4):465–474

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gramotnev G, Ristovski ZD, Brown RJ, Madl P (2004) New methods of determination of average particle emission factors for two groups of vehicles on a busy road. Atmos Environ 38(16):2607–2610

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison R, Jones M, Collins G (1999) Measurements of the physical properties of particles in the urban atmosphere. Atmos Environ 33:309–321

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hibberd MF (2005) Vehicle NOx and PM10 Emission Factors from Sydney's M5-East Tunnel. 17th International Clean Air & Environment Conference proceedings, Hobart. Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand

  • Holmen B, Chen Z, Davila A, Gao O, Vikara DM (2005) Particulate matter emissions from Hybrid Diesel-electric and Conventional Diesel Transit Buses: Fuel and Aftertreatment Effects. The University of Connecticut Report No. JHR 05-304

  • Hueglin C, Buchmann B, Weber RO (2006) Long-term observation of real-world road traffic emission factors on a motorway in Switzerland. Atmos Environ 40(20):3696–3709

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Imhof D, Weingartner E, Ordonez C, Gehrigt R, Hill N, Buchmann B, Baltensperger U (2005a) Real-world emission factors of fine and ultrafine aerosol particles for different traffic situations in Switzerland. Environ Sci Technol 39(21):8341–8350

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Imhof D, Weingartner E, Prevot A, Ordonez C, Kurtenbach R, Wiesen P, Rodler J, Sturm P, McCrae I, Sjodin A, Baltersperger U (2005b) Aerosol and NOx Emission Factors and Submicron Particle Number Size Distributions in Two Road Tunnels with Different Traffic Regimes. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions 55127–55166

  • Imhof D, Weingartner E, Vogt U, Dreiseidler A, Rosenbohm E, Scheer V, Vogt R, Nielsen OJ, Kurtenbach R, Corsmeier U, Kohler M, Baltensperger U (2005c) Vertical distribution of aerosol particles and NOx close to a motorway. Atmos Environ 39(31):5710–5721

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jamriska M, Morawska L (2001) A model for determination of motor vehicle emission factors from on-road measurements with a focus on submicrometer particles. Sci Total Environ 264(3):241–255

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jamriska M, Morawska L, Thomas S, Congrong H (2004) Diesel bus emissions measured in a tunnel study. Environ Sci Technol 38(24):6701–6709

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jones AM, Harrison RM (2006) Estimation of the emission factors of particle number and mass fractions from traffic at a site where mean vehicle speeds vary over short distances. Atmos Environ 40(37):7125–7137

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kado NY, Okamoto RA, Kuzmicky PA, Kobayashi R, Ayala A, Gebel ME, Rieger PL, Maddox C, Zafonte L (2005) Emissions of toxic pollutants from compressed natural gas and low sulfur diesel-fueled heavy-duty transit buses tested over multiple driving cycles. Environ Sci Technol 39(19):7638–7649

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ketzel M, Wahlin P, Berkowicz R, Palmgren F (2003) Particle and trace gas emission factors under urban driving conditions in Copenhagen based on street and roof-level observations. Atmos Environ 37(20):2735–2749

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kittelson DB, Watts WF, Johnson JP (2004) Nanoparticle emissions on Minnesota highways. Atmos Environ 38(1):9–19

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kristensson A, Johansson C, Westerholm R, Swietlicki E, Gidhagen L, Wideqvist U, Vesely V (2004) Real-world traffic emission factors of gases and particles measured in a road tunnel in Stockholm, Sweden. Atmos Environ 38(5):657–673

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lanni T, Frank BP, Tang S, Rosenblatt D, Lowell D (2003) Performance and Emissions Evaluation of Compressed Natural Gas and Clean Diesel Buses at New York City's Metropolitan Transit Authority. SAE 2003-01-0300

  • Lowell DM, Parsley W, Bush C, Zupo D (2003) Comparison of Clean Diesel buses to CNG Buses. 9th Diesel Engine Emissions Reduction (DEER) Workshop, Newport, RI, USA, 24–28 August

  • Mazzoleni C, Kuhns HD, Moosmuller H, Keislar RE, Barber PW, Robinson NF, Watson JG (2004) On-road vehicle particulate matter and gaseous emission distributions in Las Vegas, Nevada, compared with other areas. J Air Waste Manage Assoc 54(6):711–726

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morawska L, Bofinger ND, Kocis L, Nwankwoala A (1998) Submicrometer and supermicrometer particles from diesel vehicle emissions. Environ Sci Technol 32(14):2033–2042

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morawska L, Ristovski Z, Ayoko GA, Jayaratne ER, Lim M (2001) Report of a short investigation of emissions from diesel vehicles operating on low and ultralow sulphur content fuel. Prepared for BP Australia by Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane

    Google Scholar 

  • Morawska L, Salthammer T (2003) Chapter 3: Motor Vehicle Emissions as a Source of Indoor Particles. In: Morawska L, Salthammer T (eds) Indoor Environment. Wiley-VCH, New York, pp 297–318

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Morawska L, Moore MR, Ristovski ZD (2004) Health impacts of ultrafine particles—desktop literature review and analysis. Department of the Environment and Heritage, September, Canberra

    Google Scholar 

  • Morawska L, Jamriska M, Thomas S, Ferreira L, Mengersen K, Wraith D, McGregor F (2005) Quantification of particle number emission factors for motor vehicles from on-road measurements. Environ Sci Technol 39(23):9130–9139

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morawska L, Keogh DU, Thomas SB, Mengersen K (2008) Modality in ambient particle size distributions and its potential as a basis for developing air quality regulation. Atmospheric Environment 42(7):1617–1628

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ntziachristos L, Samaras Z, Eggleston S, Goriben N, Hassel D, Hickman AJ, Joumard R, Rijkeboer R, White L, Zierock K H (2000) COPERT III Computer programme to calculate emissions from road transport: methodology and emission factors (version 2.1). Technical report prepared by the European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, Report, 49

  • Ristovski ZD, Morawska L, Ayoko GA, Jayaratne ER, Lim M (2002) Final report of a comparative investigation of particle and gaseous emissions from twelve in-service B.C.C. buses operating on 50 and 500 ppm sulphur diesel fuel. Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane

    Google Scholar 

  • Romilly P (1999) Substitution of bus for car travel in urban Britain: an economic evaluation of bus and car exhaust emission and other costs. Transportation Research Part D-Transport and Environment 4(2), 109-125

    Google Scholar 

  • SAE (2001) Performance and Durability Evaluation of Continuously Regenerating Particulate Filters on Diesel powered Urban Transit Buses at NY City Transit. Society of Automotive Engineers SAE 2001-01-0511

  • SAE (2002a) Performance and Durability of Continuously Regenerating Particulate Filters on Diesel powered Urban Transit Buses at NY City Transit—Part II. Society of Automotive Engineers SAE 2002-01-0430

  • SAE (2002b) Year-Long Evaluation of Trucks and Buses Equipped with Passive Diesel Diesel Particulate Filters. Society of Automotive Engineers SAE 2002-01-0433

  • SAE (2003a) Oxidation catalyst effect on CBG Transit Bus Emissions. Society of Automotive Engineers SAE 2003-01-1900

  • SAE (2003b) Performance and Emissions Evaluation of Compressed Natural Gas and Clean Diesel Buses at New York City's Metropolitan Transit Authority. Society of Automotive Engineers SAE 2003-01-0300

  • Samaras Z, Ntziachristos L, Thompson N, Hall D, Westerholm R, Boulter P (2005) Characterisation of Exhaust Particulate Emissions from Road Vehicles, PARTICULATES program, European Commission. Contract No 2000-RD.11091, source http://lat.eng.auth.gr/particulates/downloads.htm

  • Scheffe H (1959) The analysis of variance. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmid H, Pucher E, Ellinger R, Biebl P, Puxbaum H (2001) Decadal reductions of traffic emissions on a transit route in Austria—results of the Tauerntunnel experiment 1997. Atmos Environ 35(21):3585–3593

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shah SD, Cocker DR, Miller JW, Norbeck JM (2004) Emission rates of particulate matter and elemental and organic carbon from in-use diesel engines. Environ Sci Technol 38(9):2544–2550

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shi J, Harrison RM (1999) Investigation of ultrafine particle formation during diesel exhaust dilution. Environ Sci Technol 33:3730–3736

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shi JP, Khan AA, Harrison RM (1999) Measurements of ultrafine particle concentration and size distribution in the urban atmosphere. Sci Total Environ 235:51–64

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shi J, Evans D, Khan A, Harrison R (2001) Sources and concentration of nanoparticles (<10 nm Diameter) in the urban atmosphere. Atmos Environ 35:1193–1202

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smit R, Smoker R, Rab E (2007) A new modelling approach for road traffic emissions: VERSIT+. Transportation Research Part D-Transport and Environment 12:414–422

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tran TV, Ng YL, Denison L (2003) Emission factors for in-service vehicles using citylink tunnel. Proceedings of the National Clean Air Conference, Newcastle

    Google Scholar 

  • Ubanwa B, Burnette A, Kishan S, Fritz SG (2003) Exhaust particulate matter emission factors and deterioration rate for in-use motor vehicles. J Engin Gas Turbin Power-Transactions of the Asme 125(2):513–523

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • USEPA (1993) User's Guide to MOBILE5A, Mobile source emissions factor model, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

  • Wahlin P, Palmgren F, Van Dingenen R (2001) Experimental studies of ultrafine particles in streets and the relationship to traffic. Atmos Environ 35:S63–S69

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Venkatram A, Fitz D, Bumiller K, Du SM, Boeck M, Ganguly C (1999) Using a dispersion model to estimate emission rates of particulate matter from paved roads. Atmos Environ 33(7):1093–1102

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walker JL, Li J, Srinivasan S, Bolduc D (2008) Travel Demand Models in the Developed World: Correcting for Measurement Errors Transportation Research Board 87th Annual Meeting Washington

  • Wayne WS, Clark NN, Nine RD, Elefante D (2004) A comparison of emissions and fuel economy from hybrid-electric and conventional-drive transit buses. Energy Fuels 18(1):257–270

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang KM, Wexler AS, Niemeier DA, Zhu YF, Hinds WC, Sioutas C (2005) Evolution of particle number distribution near roadways. Part III: traffic, analysis and on-road size resolved particulate emission factors. Atmos Environ 39(22):4155–4166

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu YF, Hinds WC (2005) Predicting particle number concentrations near a highway based on vertical concentration profile. Atmos Environ 39(8):1557–1566

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge the support of Ray Donato, Jurgen Pasieczny and Randall Fletcher, and the financial support of the Australian Research Council (Grant No. LP0775260) and Queensland Transport. We also appreciate the assistance of Sean Moynihan with model enhancements, and discussions with Xuan Ling and Sama Low Choy.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health, Queensland University of Technology, 2 George Street, Brisbane, Queensland, 4000, Australia

    Diane U. Keogh, Rohan Jayaratne & Lidia Morawska

  2. School of Mathematical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, 2 George Street, Brisbane, Queensland, 4000, Australia

    Joe Kelly & Kerrie Mengersen

  3. School of Urban Development, Queensland University of Technology, 2 George Street, Brisbane, Queensland, 4000, Australia

    Luis Ferreira

Authors
  1. Diane U. Keogh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Joe Kelly
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kerrie Mengersen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Rohan Jayaratne
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Luis Ferreira
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Lidia Morawska
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lidia Morawska.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Karsten Baumann

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Keogh, D.U., Kelly, J., Mengersen, K. et al. Derivation of motor vehicle tailpipe particle emission factors suitable for modelling urban fleet emissions and air quality assessments. Environ Sci Pollut Res 17, 724–739 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-009-0210-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-009-0210-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation