Abstract
Kojic acid is a fungal secondary metabolite commonly known as a tyrosinase inhibitor, that acts as a skin-whitening agent. Its applications are widely distributed in the area of cosmetics, medicine, food, and chemical synthesis. Renewable resources are the alternative feedstocks that can fulfill the demand for free sugars which are fermented for the production of kojic acid. This review highlights the current progress and importance of bioprocessing of kojic acid from various types of competitive and non-competitive renewable feedstocks. The bioprocessing advancements, secondary metabolic pathway networks, gene clusters and regulations, strain improvement, and process design have also been discussed. The importance of nitrogen sources, amino acids, ions, agitation, and pH has been summarized. Two fungal species Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus oryzae are found to be extensively studied for kojic acid production due to their versatile substrate utilization and high titer ability. The potential of A. flavus to be a competitive industrial strain for large-scale production of kojic acid has been studied.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Abbreviations
- DOT:
-
Dissolved oxygen tension
- KLa:
-
volumetric oxygen mass transfer coefficient
- TLC:
-
Thin layer chromatography
- TCA:
-
Tri-carboxylic acid
- FAD:
-
Flavin adenine dinucleotide
- PCR:
-
Polymerase chain reaction
- ARTP:
-
Atmospheric & room temperature plasma
- ZIP:
-
ZRT/IRT-related protein
- ZRT:
-
Zinc regulated transporter
- IRT:
-
Iron regulated transporter
- SSF:
-
Solid-state fermentation
- SmF:
-
Submerged fermentation
- GRAS:
-
Generally recognized as safe
- AFB1 :
-
Aflatoxin B1
References
Adhikari BN, Bandyopadhyay R, Cotty PJ (2016) Degeneration of aflatoxin gene clusters in aspergillus flavus from Africa and North America. AMB Express 6:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1186/S13568-016-0228-6/TABLES/4
Alberts JF, Gelderblom WCA, Botha A, van Zyl WH (2009) Degradation of aflatoxin B1 by fungal laccase enzymes. Int J Food Microbiol 135:47–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJFOODMICRO.2009.07.022
Ammar HAM, Ezzat SM, Houseny AM (2017) Improved production of kojic acid by mutagenesis of aspergillus flavus HAk1 and aspergillus oryzae HAk2 and their potential antioxidant activity. 3 Biotech 7:276. https://doi.org/10.1007/S13205-017-0905-4
Ariff AB, Salleh MS, Ghani B et al (1996) Aeration and yeast extract requirements for kojic acid production by aspergillus flavus link. Enzyme Microb Technol 19:545–550. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0141-0229(96)00065-8
Ariff AB, Mohamad R, Herng LS et al (1997) Kinetics and modelling of kojic acid production by aspergillus flavus link in batch fermentation and resuspended mycelial system. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 13:195–201. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018593815266
Ashari SE, Mohamad R, Ariff A et al (2009) Optimization of enzymatic synthesis of palm-based kojic acid ester using response surface methodology. J Oleo Sci 58:503–510. https://doi.org/10.5650/JOS.58.503
Aytemir MD, Karakaya G (2012) Kojic acid derivatives. In: Medicinal Chemistry and Drug Design. IntechOpen, pp 1–26
Aziz F (2012) Evaluation of sago hampas as potential carbon source for kojic acid production by Aspergilus flavus Link 44 – 1. Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia
Badar R, Yaqoob S, Ahmed A et al (2021) Screening and optimization of submerged fermentation of aspergillus species for kojic acid production. Europe PMC
Bajpai P, Agrawala PK, Vishwanathan L (1981) Enzymes relevant to kojic acid biosynthesis in aspergillus flavus. J Gen Microbiol 127:131–136. https://doi.org/10.1099/00221287-127-1-131/CITE/REFWORKS
Bashir F, Sultana K, Khalid M et al (2021) Kojic acid: a comprehensive review. Asian J Health Sci. https://doi.org/10.52229/AJAHS.V0I0.798
Bentley R (2006) From miso, saké and shoyu to cosmetics: a century of science for kojic acid. Nat Prod Rep 23:1046–1062. https://doi.org/10.1039/B603758P
Boo YC (2021) Arbutin as a skin depigmenting agent with antimelanogenic and antioxidant properties. Antioxidants 10:1–22. https://doi.org/10.3390/ANTIOX10071129
Cao H, Liu D, Mo X et al (2011) A fungal enzyme with the ability of aflatoxin B1 conversion: purification and ESI-MS/MS identification. Microbiol Res 166:475–483. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MICRES.2010.09.002
Chang TS (2009) An updated review of tyrosinase inhibitors. Int J Mol Sci 10:2440. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS10062440
Chang PK, Ehrlich KC (2010) What does genetic diversity of aspergillus flavus tell us about Aspergillus oryzae? Int J Food Microbiol 138:189–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJFOODMICRO.2010.01.033
Chang PK, Hua SST, Sarreal SBL, Li RW (2015) Suppression of aflatoxin biosynthesis in aspergillus flavus by 2-phenylethanol is associated with stimulated growth and decreased degradation of branched-chain amino acids. Toxins (Basel) 7:3887. https://doi.org/10.3390/TOXINS7103887
Chaudhary J, Pathak AN, Lakhawat S (2014) Production technology and applications of kojic acid. Annu Res Rev Biol 4:3165–3196. https://doi.org/10.9734/ARRB/2014/10643
Chen CS, Liu KJ, Lou YH, Shieh CJ (2002) Optimisation of kojic acid monolaurate synthesis with lipase PS from Pseudomonas cepacia. J Sci Food Agric 82:601–605. https://doi.org/10.1002/JSFA.1083
Chen T, Chen Z, Li Y et al (2022a) A novel major facilitator superfamily transporter gene Aokap4 near the kojic acid gene cluster is involved in growth and kojic acid production in aspergillus oryzae. J Fungi 8:885. https://doi.org/10.3390/JOF8080885/S1
Chen Z, Chen T, Wang H et al (2022b) Disruption of Aokap6 near the kojic acid gene cluster affects the growth and kojic acid production in aspergillus oryzae. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 38:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11274-022-03361-X
Chib S, Dogra A, Nandi U, Saran S (2019) Consistent production of kojic acid from Aspergillus sojae SSC-3 isolated from rice husk. Mol Biol Rep 46:5995–6002. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11033-019-05035-8
Coelho RS, Anschau A, Monte-Alegre R (2010) Kojic acid production from glycerol: optimization using central composite rotatable design. J Biotechnol 150:84. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JBIOTEC.2010.08.216
Doriya K, Jose N, Gowda M, Kumar DS (2016) Solid-state fermentation vs submerged fermentation for the production of l-asparaginase. Adv Food Nutr Res 78:115–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/BS.AFNR.2016.05.003
El-Aasar SA (2006) Cultural conditions studies on kojic acid production by aspergillus parasiticus. Int J Agric Biol 08:468–473
El-Kady IA, Zohri ANA, Hamed SR (2014) Kojic acid production from agro-industrial by-products using fungi. Biotechnol Res Int 2014:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/642385
Feng W, Liang J, Wang B, Chen J (2019) Improvement of kojic acid production in aspergillus oryzae AR-47 mutant strain by combined mutagenesis. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 42:753–761. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00449-019-02079-9
Futamura T, Ishihara H, Tamura T et al (2001) Kojic acid production in an airlift bioreactor using partially hydrolyzed raw corn starch. J Biosci Bioeng 92:360–365. https://doi.org/10.1263/JBB.92.360
Gebreyohannes G (2015) Isolation and optimization of amylase producing bacteria and actinomycetes from soil samples of Maraki and Tewedros campus, University of Gondar, North West Ethiopia. Afr J Microbiol Res 9:1877–1882. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJMR2014.7027
Hassan HM, Saad AM, Hazzaa MM, Ibrahim EI (2014) Optimization study for the production of kojic acid crystals by aspergillus oryzae var. Effusus NRC 14 isolate. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 3:133–142
Huang C, Jiang X, Shen X et al (2022) Lignin-enzyme interaction: a roadblock for efficient enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosics. Renew Sust Energy Rev 154:111822. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111822
Ishak N, Lajis AFB, Mohamad R et al (2018) Kinetics and optimization of lipophilic kojic acid derivative synthesis in polar aprotic solvent using lipozyme RMIM and its rheological study. Molecules 2018 23:501. https://doi.org/10.3390/MOLECULES23020501
Isikgor FH, Becer CR (2015) Lignocellulosic biomass: a sustainable platform for the production of bio-based chemicals and polymers. Polym Chem 6:4497–4559. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5PY00263J
Jumbri K, Al-Haniff Rozy MF, Ashari SE et al (2015) Optimisation and characterisation of lipase-catalysed synthesis of a kojic monooleate ester in a solvent-free system by response surface methodology. PLoS ONE 10:e0144664. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0144664
Kawauchi M, Nishiura M, Iwashita K (2013) Fungus-specific sirtuin HstD coordinates secondary metabolism and development through control of LaeA. Eukaryot Cell 12:1087. https://doi.org/10.1128/EC.00003-13
Khamaruddin N, Basri M, Lian G et al (2008) Enzymatic synthesis and characterization of palm-based kojic acid ester. J Oil Palm Res 20:461–469
Klich MA (2007) Aspergillus flavus: the major producer of aflatoxin. Mol Plant Pathol 8:713–722. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1364-3703.2007.00436.X
Kudo H, Arakawa G, ya, Shirai S et al (2022) New role of a histone chaperone, HirA: involvement in kojic acid production associated with culture conditions in aspergillus oryzae. J Biosci Bioeng 133:235–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JBIOSC.2021.12.001
Kumar R, Jayalakshmi S (2016) Use of coconut coir fibers as an inert solid support for kojic acid production under solid state fermentation. Int J Curr Microbiol Appl Sci 5:256–264. https://doi.org/10.20546/IJCMAS.2016.512.027
Kumar V, Ahluwalia V, Saran S et al (2021) Recent developments on solid-state fermentation for production of microbial secondary metabolites: Challenges and solutions. Bioresour Technol 323:124566. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BIORTECH.2020.124566
Kwak MY, Rhee JS (1992) Cultivation characteristics of immobilized aspergillus oryzae for kojic acid production. Biotechnol Bioeng 39:903–906. https://doi.org/10.1002/BIT.260390904
Láinez M, Ruiz HA, Castro-Luna AA, Martínez-Hernández S (2018) Release of simple sugars from lignocellulosic biomass of Agave salmiana leaves subject to sequential pretreatment and enzymatic saccharification. Biomass Bioenergy 118:133–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BIOMBIOE.2018.08.012
Lajis AFB, Basri M, Mohamad R et al (2013) Enzymatic synthesis of kojic acid esters and their potential industrial applications. Chem Pap 67:573–585. https://doi.org/10.2478/S11696-013-0336-6/MACHINEREADABLECITATION/RIS
Lassfolk R, Suonpaä A, Birikh K, Leino R (2019) Chemo-enzymatic three-step conversion of glucose to kojic acid. Chem Commun 55:14737–14740. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9CC07405H
Li Y, Zhang H, Chen Z et al (2022a) Identification and characterization of a novel gene Aokap1 involved in growth and kojic acid synthesis in aspergillus oryzae. Arch Microbiol 204:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00203-021-02718-4/METRICS
Li Y, Zhang H, Chen Z et al (2022b) Overexpression of a novel gene Aokap2 affects the growth and kojic acid production in aspergillus oryzae. Mol Biol Rep 49:2745–2754. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11033-021-07084-4
Liu X, Xia W, Jiang Q et al (2014) Synthesis, characterization, and antimicrobial activity of kojic acid grafted chitosan oligosaccharide. J Agric Food Chem 62:297–303. https://doi.org/10.1021/JF404026F
Liu X, Jiang Q, Xia W (2018) One-step procedure for enhancing the antibacterial and antioxidant properties of a polysaccharide polymer: kojic acid grafted onto chitosan. Int J Biol Macromol 113:1125–1133. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJBIOMAC.2018.03.007
Machida M, Asai K, Sano M et al (2005) Genome sequencing and analysis of Aspergillus oryzae. Nature 2005 438:7071 438:1157–1161. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04300
Majumder P, Annegowda HV (2021) Fruit and vegetable by-products: novel ingredients for a sustainable society. Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products: Recent Trends, Innovations and Sustainability Challenges 133–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824044-1.00006-4
Marui J, Yamane N, Ohashi-Kunihiro S et al (2011) Kojic acid biosynthesis in aspergillus oryzae is regulated by a zn(II)(2)cys(6) transcriptional activator and induced by kojic acid at the transcriptional level. J Biosci Bioeng 112:40–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JBIOSC.2011.03.010
Mohamad R, Ariff AB, Hassan MA, Karim MIA (1998a) Kojic acid production by aspergillus flavus using gelatinized and hydrolyzed sago starch as carbon sources. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 43:459–464. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02820791
Mohamad R, Madihah S, Ariff AB (1998b) Isolation of a kojic acid-producing fungus capable of using starch as a carbon source. Lett Appl Microbiol 26:27–30. https://doi.org/10.1046/J.1472-765X.1998.00263.X
Mohamad R, Ariff AB (2000) Kinetics of kojic acid fermentation by aspergillus flavus using different types and concentrations of carbon and nitrogen sources. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 25:20–24. https://doi.org/10.1038/SJ.JIM.7000017
Mohamad R, Ariff AB, Hassan MA, Karim MIA (2000) Influence of pH on kojic acid fermentation by aspergillus flavus. Pak J Biol Sci 3:977–982. https://doi.org/10.3923/PJBS.2000.977.982
Mohamad R, Ariff AB (2006) Kinetics of kojic acid fermentation by aspergillus flavus link S44-1 using sucrose as a carbon source under different pH conditions. Biotechnol Bioprocess Eng 11:72–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02931872
Mohamad R, Ariff AB (2007) Biotransformation of various carbon sources to kojic acid by cell-bound enzyme system of A. flavus Link 44 – 1. Biochem Eng J 35:203–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BEJ.2007.01.015
Motomura M, Toyomasu T, Mizuno K, Shinozawa T (2003) Purification and characterization of an aflatoxin degradation enzyme from Pleurotus ostreatus. Microbiol Res 158:237–242. https://doi.org/10.1078/0944-5013-00199
Nikhil C, Srushi T, Purnima A, Candu S (2021) Alpha arbutin as a skin lightening agent: a review. Int J Pharm Sci Res 13:3052–3010. https://doi.org/10.31838/IJPR/2021.13.02.446
Nurashikin S, Rusley EZ, Husaini A (2013) Solid-state bioconversion of pineapple residues into kojic acid by aspergillus flavus: a prospective study.Int J Biotechnol bioeng7
Ola ARB, Metboki G, Lay CS et al (2019) Single production of kojic acid by aspergillus flavus and the revision of flufuran. Molecules 2019 24:4200. https://doi.org/10.3390/MOLECULES24224200
Pastucha-Panek M, Walaszczyk E (2019) Effect of sucrose concentration on kojic acid biosynthesis by aspergillus oryzae M-23. Acta Scientiarum Polonorum -Biotechnologia 18:5–10. https://doi.org/10.30825/5.BIOT161.2019.18.1
Payne GA, Nierman WC, Wortman JR et al (2006) Whole genome comparison of aspergillus flavus and A. oryzae. Med Mycol 44:S9–S11. https://doi.org/10.1080/13693780600835716
Promsang A, Rungsardthong V, Thumthanaruk B et al (2019) Effect of culture conditions and medium compositions on kojic acid production by aspergillus oryzae ATCC 10124. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 346:012047. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/346/1/012047
Rasmey AHM, Abdel-Kareem M (2021) Optimization of culture conditions for kojic acid production in surface fermentation by aspergillus oryzae isolated from wheat grains. Bull Pharm Sci Assiut 44:201–211. https://doi.org/10.21608/BFSA.2021.174146
Rasmey AHM, Basha A (2016) Isolation and screening of kojic acid producing isolate of aspergillus oryzae potentially applicable for production from sugarcane molasses. Int J Biol Res 4:119–128. https://doi.org/10.14419/ijbr.v4i2.6434
Ravichandran S (2012) Solid state and submerged fermentation for the production of bioactive substances: a comparative study. Int J Biotechnol Bioeng 3:480–486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jddst.2017.10.025
Ren Y, Jin J, Zheng M et al (2020) Ethanol inhibits aflatoxin B1 biosynthesis in aspergillus flavus by up-regulating oxidative stress-related genes. Front Microbiol 10:2946. https://doi.org/10.3389/FMICB.2019.02946/BIBTEX
Saeedi M, Eslamifar M, Khezri K (2019) Kojic acid applications in cosmetic and pharmaceutical preparations. Biomed Pharmacother 110:582–593. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BIOPHA.2018.12.006
Sanjotha G, Shivasharana CT, Manawadi SI (2019) An in vitro approach for evaluating antimicrobial activity and production of kojic acid by aspergillus flavus isolated from Karwar region. J Pure Appl Microbiol 13:2261–2272. https://doi.org/10.22207/JPAM.13.4.40
Schmidt MA, Mao Y, Opoku J, Mehl HL (2021) Enzymatic degradation is an effective means to reduce aflatoxin contamination in maize. BMC Biotechnol 21:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12896-021-00730-6
Sharma S, Nair A, Sarma SJ (2021) Biorefinery concept of simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation: Challenges and improvements. Chem Eng Process: Process Intensif 169:108634. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEP.2021.108634
Sharma S, Singh S, Sarma SJ (2023) Isolation of a new strain of aspergillus and molecular structure elucidation of unknown metabolite produced from castor oil. J Ind Eng Chem 120:316–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JIEC.2022.12.038
Shehata RM, Sabry SM (2020) Biotechnological production of kojic acid synthesized by endophytic fungi, aspergillus oryzae isolated from Euphorbia peplis. Egypt Acad J Biol Sci 12:35–47. https://doi.org/10.21608/EAJBSG.2020.107645
Singh S, Sharma S, Sarma SJ, Brar SK (2022) A comprehensive review of castor oil-derived renewable and sustainable industrial products. Environ Prog Sustain Energy e14008. https://doi.org/10.1002/EP.14008
Srivastava N, Srivastava M, Ramteke PW, Mishra PK (2019) Solid-state fermentation strategy for microbial metabolites production: An overview. New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering: Microbial Secondary Metabolites Biochemistry and Applications 345–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63504-4.00023-2
Suryadi H, Sukarna DKP (2018) Kojic acid production using mixed cultures of aspergillus oryzae and aspergillus tamarii. Int J Appl Pharm 10:279–284. https://doi.org/10.22159/IJAP.2018.V10S1.62
Suwarjo ID, Azzahra AF, Suryadi H (2018) Isolation of kojic acid producing mold using complex carbon sources. Pharmacognosy J 10:1089–1092. https://doi.org/10.5530/PJ.2018.6.184
Sweany RR, Mack BM, Moore GG et al (2021) Genetic responses and aflatoxin inhibition during co-culture of aflatoxigenic and non-aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus. Toxins 2021, Vol 13, Page 794 13:794. https://doi.org/10.3390/TOXINS13110794
Takamizawa K, Nakashima S, Yahashi Y et al (1996) Optimization of kojic acid production rate using the Box-Wilson method. J Ferment Bioeng 82:414–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/0922-338X(96)89163-X
Tamano K, Kuninaga M, Kojima N et al (2019) Use of the kojA promoter, involved in kojic acid biosynthesis, for polyketide production in aspergillus oryzae: implications for long-term production. BMC Biotechnol 19:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12896-019-0567-X
Taylor MC, Jackson CJ, Tattersall DB et al (2010) Identification and characterization of two families of F420 H2-dependent reductases from Mycobacteria that catalyse aflatoxin degradation. Mol Microbiol 78:561–575. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1365-2958.2010.07356.X
Terabayashi Y, Sano M, Yamane N et al (2010) Identification and characterization of genes responsible for biosynthesis of kojic acid, an industrially important compound from aspergillus oryzae. Fungal Genet Biol 47:953–961. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FGB.2010.08.014
Troiano D, Orsat V, Dumont MJ (2020) Status of filamentous fungi in integrated biorefineries. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 117:109472. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2019.109472
Wang J, Ogata M, Hirai H, Kawagishi H (2011) Detoxification of aflatoxin B1 by manganese peroxidase from the white-rot fungus Phanerochaete sordida YK-624. FEMS Microbiol Lett 314:164–169. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1574-6968.2010.02158.X
Wang Z, Luo W, Fu J et al (2017) Double-lipase catalyzed synthesis of kojic dipalmitate in organic solvents. Chem Res Chin Universities 2017 33:6. https://doi.org/10.1007/S40242-017-7048-3
Wang J, Xie Y (2020) Review on microbial degradation of zearalenone and aflatoxins. Grain & Oil Science and Technology 3:117–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.GAOST.2020.05.002
Webb C (2017) Design aspects of solid-state fermentation as applied to microbial bioprocessing. J Appl Biotechnol Bioeng Volume 4. https://doi.org/10.15406/JABB.2017.04.00094
ya Arakawa G, Kudo H, Yanase A et al (2019) A unique zn(II)2-Cys6-type protein, KpeA, is involved in secondary metabolism and conidiation in aspergillus oryzae. Fungal Genet Biol 127:35–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FGB.2019.02.004
Yamada R, Yoshie T, Wakai S et al (2014) Aspergillus oryzae-based cell factory for direct kojic acid production from cellulose. Microb Cell Fact 13:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2859-13-71
Yan S, Tang H, Wang S et al (2013) Improvement of kojic acid production in aspergillus oryzae B008 mutant strain and its uses in fermentation of concentrated corn stalk hydrolysate. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 37:1095–1103. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00449-013-1081-5
Yan S, Liang Y, Zhang J et al (2015) Autoxidated linolenic acid inhibits aflatoxin biosynthesis in aspergillus flavus via oxylipin species. Fungal Genet Biol 81:229–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FGB.2014.11.005
Zhang JD, Han L, Yan S, Liu CM (2014) The non-metabolizable glucose analog D-glucal inhibits aflatoxin biosynthesis and promotes kojic acid production in aspergillus flavus. BMC Microbiol 14:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2180-14-95
Zhang Z, Fan J, Long C et al (2019) Identification and characterization of the ZRT, IRT-like protein (ZIP) family genes reveal their involvement in growth and kojic acid production in aspergillus oryzae. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 46:1769–1780. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10295-019-02236-9
Zhao LH, Guan S, Gao X et al (2011) Preparation, purification and characteristics of an aflatoxin degradation enzyme from Myxococcus fulvus ANSM068. J Appl Microbiol 110:147–155. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1365-2672.2010.04867.X
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to Bennett University for providing a Ph.D. fellowship to Mr. Sumit and Ms. Shikha to conduct this study.
Funding
This study was funded by Bennett University through its Ph.D. fellowship program.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to this study. Sumit Sharma contributed to the conceptualization, original draft, editing, formatting, data compiling, and conclusive points. Formal analysis, review & editing was done by Shikha Singh. Saurabh Jyoti Sarma did the supervision, visualization, review & editing. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing Interests
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Ethics approval
This is an observational study. No ethical approval is required.
Consent to participate
Not Applicable.
Consent to publish
Not Applicable.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Sharma, S., Singh, S. & Sarma, S.J. Challenges and advancements in bioprocess intensification of fungal secondary metabolite: kojic acid. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 39, 140 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-023-03587-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-023-03587-3