Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Human schistosomiasis in wetlands in southern Africa

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Wetlands Ecology and Management Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This review describes the types of habitats in which human schistosomiasis is transmitted in wetlands across southern Africa. The snails that serve as the parasites’ intermediate hosts are tolerant of water with a wide range of chemical composition but are restricted by current velocity, temperature and habitat permanence. Human contact with the water in snail habitats is crucial to the establishment of transmission and children are more frequently and more severely infected than adults. Swimming is the contact activity that contributes most to transmission. Case studies illustrating the roles of high temperatures, hydrology and over-fishing in the epidemiology of the disease in the region are also reviewed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Appleton CC (1974) The population fluctuations of five fresh-water snail species in the eastern Transvaal lowveld, and their relationship to known bilharzia transmission patterns. S Afr J Sci 70:145–150

    Google Scholar 

  • Appleton CC (1975) The influence of stream geology on the distribution of the bilharzia host snails, Biomphalaria pfeifferi and Bulinus (Physopsis) sp. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 69:241–255

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Appleton CC (1976) Observations on the thermal regime of a stream in the eastern Transvaal, with reference to certain aquatic Pulmonata. S Afr J Sci 72:20–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Appleton CC (1977a) The influence of temperature on the life-cycle and distribution of Biomphalaria pfeifferi (Krauss, 1848) in south-eastern Africa. Int J Parasitol 7:335–345

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Appleton CC (1977b) The influence of above-optimal constant temperatures on South African Biomphalaria pfeifferi (Krauss) (Mollusca: Planorbidae). Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 71:140–143

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Appleton CC (1978) Review of literature on abiotic factors influencing the distribution and life cycles of bilharziasis intermediate host snails. Malacol Rev 11:1–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Appleton CC (1985) Molluscicides in bilharziasis control—the South African experience. S Afr J Sci 81:356–360

    Google Scholar 

  • Appleton CC (1986) Resumption of Schistosoma haematobium transmission after drought and subsequent flood. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 80:367–368

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Appleton CC (2006) Do rice paddies provide a route for the introduction of intestinal schistosomiasis into north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa? In: Madsen H, Appleton CC (eds) Proceedings of a workshop on African freshwater malacology, Kampala, Sept 2003, pp 79–104

  • Appleton CC, Bruton MN (1979) The epidemiology of schistosomiasis in the vicinity of Lake Sibaya, with a note on other areas of Tongaland (Natal, South Africa). Ann Trop Med Parasitol 73:547–561

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Appleton CC, Eriksson IM (1984) The influence of fluctuating above-optimal temperature regimes on the fecundity of Biomphalaria pfeifferi (Mollusca: Planorbidae). Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 78:49–54

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Appleton CC, Stiles G (1976) Geology and geomorphology in relation to the distribution of snail intermediate hosts of bilharzia in South Africa. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 70:189–198

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Appleton CC, Curtis BA, Alonso LE, Kipping J (2003) Freshwater invertebrates of the Okavango Delta, Botswana. In: Alonso LE, Nordin L-A (eds) A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: high water survey. RAP Bull Biol Assess 27:58–68, 123–139

  • Appleton CC, Ellery WN, Byskov J, Mogkweetsinyana SS (2008) Epidemic transmission of intestinal schistosomiasis in the seasonal part of the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 102:611–623

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ashton PJ, Ashton PJ, Masundire H, Hart R, Prince-Nengu J, Botshelo O, Lekhuru M, Mehlomakulu M, Tylol I (2003) Water quality of the Okavango Delta, Botswana. In: Alonso LE, Nordin L-A (eds) A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: high water survey. RAP Bull Biol Assess 27:38–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Boelee E, Madsen H (2006) Irrigation and schistosomiasis in Africa: ecological aspects. International and Water Management Institute, Colombo, Research Report 99, pp 1–39

  • Brown DS (1994) Freshwater snails of Africa and their medical importance, 2nd edn. Taylor & Francis, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Buckley JJC (1946) A helminthological survey in Northern Rhodesia. J Helminthol 21:111–174

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • CCME (1999) Canadian sediment quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic life: DDT, DDE and DDD. In: Canadian environmental quality guidelines, 1999, Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, Winnipeg

  • Chandiwana SK, Christensen NO (1988) Analysis of the dynamics of transmission of human schistosomiasis in the highveld region of Zimbabwe. A review. J Trop Med Parasitol 39:187–193

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chimbari MJ, Ndhlovu PD, Chandiwana SK, Chitsiko RJ, Bolton P, Thomson AJ (1991) Schistosomiasis control measures for small irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe: results from three years monitoring at Mushandike Irrigation Scheme. HR Wallingford Technical Report, OD 123

  • Chimbari MJ, Dhlomo E, Mwadiwa E, Mubila L (2003) Transmission of schistosomiasis in Kariba, Zimbabwe, and a cross-sectional comparison of schistosomiasis prevalences and intensities in the town with those in Siavongo in Zambia. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 97:605–616

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coles GC (1969) Observations on weight loss and oxygen uptake of aestivating Bulinus nasutus, an intermediate host of Schistosoma haematobium. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 63:393–398

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • de Azevedo JF, de Medeiros LM, da Faro MM, Xavier M de L, Gândara AF, de Morais T (1961) Os moluscos de água doce do ultramar Português. III—Moluscos de Moçambique. Estudos, Ensaios e Documentos do Junta Investigaciones Ultramar 88:1–394

  • De Kock KN (1973) Die bevolkingsdinamika van vyf medies en veeartsenykundig belangrike varswaterslakspesies onder toestande van beheerde temperatuur. Dissertation, Potchefstroom University, Potchefstroom

  • De Kock KN, Wolmarans CT (2005) Distribution and habitats of the Bulinus africanus species group, snail intermediate hosts of Schistosoma haematobium and S. mattheei in South Africa. Water SA 31:117–125

    Google Scholar 

  • De Kock KN, Wolmarans CT, Bornman M (2004) Distribution and habitats of Biomphalaria pfeifferi, snail intermediate host of Schistosoma mansoni, in South Africa. Water SA 30:29–36

    Google Scholar 

  • De Meillon B, Frank GH, Allanson BR (1958) Some aspects of snail ecology in South Africa. Bull WHO 18:771–783

    Google Scholar 

  • Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) (1986) Management of the water resources of the Republic of South Africa. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Pretoria

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickens CWS, Graham PM (2002) The South African Scoring System (SASS) version 5 rapid bioassessment method for rivers. Afr J Aquat Sci 27:1–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Donnelly FA, Appleton CC (1985) Observations on the field transmission dynamics of Schistosoma mansoni and S. mattheei in southern Natal, South Africa. Parasitology 91:281–290

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Donnelly FA, Appleton CC, Begg GW, Schutte CHJ (1984) Bilharzia transmission in Natal’s estuaries and lagoons: fact or fiction? S Afr J Sci 80:455–460

    Google Scholar 

  • Doumenge JP, Mott KE, Cheung C, Villenave D, Chapuis O, Perrin MF, Reaud-Thomas G (1987) Atlas of the global distribution of schistsomiasis. WHO, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans AC (1975) Report on visit to Malaŵi, 19th–31st May 1975: investigations into schistosomiasis potential in and around lake-shore resorts and other tourist sites, with suggestions and recommendations. Report to Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Tourism, Lilongwe

  • Evans AC (1983) Control of schistosomiasis in large irrigation schemes by use of niclosamide: a ten-year study in Zimbabwe. Am J Trop Med Hyg 32:1029–1039

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evans AC, Martin DJ, Ginsburg BD (1991) Katayama fever in scuba divers. S Afr Med J 79:271–274

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frank GH (1964) The ecology of the intermediate hosts of bilharzia. In: Davis DHS (ed) Ecological studies in Southern Africa. W. Junk, The Hague, pp 353–362

    Google Scholar 

  • Friis H, Byskov J (1989) The effect of praziquantel against Schistosoma mansoni infections in Botswana. Trop Geogr Med 41:49–51

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gear JHS, Pitchford RJ, van Eeden JA (1980) Atlas of Bilharzia in South Africa. South African Institute for Medical Research, South African Medical Research Council, Potchefstroom University, Johannesburg

  • Gear JHS, Miller GB, Reid FP (1986) Bilharzia contracted in small dams and while canoeing with special reference to its early stages. S Afr J Epidemiol Infect 1:38–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Genner MJ, Michel E (2003) Fine-scale habitat associations of soft-sediment gastropods at Cape Maclear, Lake Malaŵi. J Molluscan Stud 69:325–328

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamer ML, Appleton CC (1991) Physical and chemical characteristics and phyllopod fauna of temporary pools in north-eastern Natal, Republic of South Africa. Hydrobiologia 212:95–104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hemson D (2007) ‘The toughest of chores’: policy and practice in children collecting water in South Africa. Policy Futures Educ 5:315–326

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hira PR (1972) Studies on schistosomiasis on the western shores of Lake Bangweulu, Zambia. East Afr Med J 49:526–530

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter JM, Rey L, Chu KY, Adekolu-John EO, Mott KE (1993) Parasitic diseases in water resources development. WHO, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Husting EL (1970) Sociological patterns and their influence of the transmission of bilharziasis. Cent Afr J Med 16:5–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Joubert PH, Pretorius SJ, de Kock KN, van Eeden JA (1984) The effect of constant low temperatures on the survival of Bulinus africanus (Krauss), Bulinus globosus (Morelet) and Biomphalaria pfeifferi (Krauss). S Afr J Zool 19:314–316

    Google Scholar 

  • Joubert PH, Pretorius SJ, de Kock KN, van Eeden JA (1986) Survival of Bulinus africanus (Krauss), Bulinus globosus (Morelet) and Biomphalaria pfeifferi (Krauss) at constant high temperatures. S Afr J Zool 21:85–88

    Google Scholar 

  • Kvalsvig JD, Schutte CHJ (1986) The role of human water contact patterns in the transmission of schistosomiasis in an informal settlement near a major industrial area. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 80:13–26

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Logan JWM (1983) Schistosomiasis in Swaziland—a comparative study of three irrigated estates. J Helminthol 57:247–253

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Louda SM, Gray WN, McKaye KR, Mhone OJ (1983) Distribution of gastropod genera over a vertical depth gradient at Cape Maclear, Lake Malaŵi. Veliger 25:387–392

    Google Scholar 

  • Madsen H, Stauffer JR (2012) Density of Trematocranus placodon (Pisces: Cichlidae): a predictor of density of the schistosome intermediate host, Bulinus nyassanus (Gastropoda: Planorbidae), in Lake Malaŵi. EcoHealth 8:177–189

    Google Scholar 

  • Madsen H, Bloch P, Kristensen TK, Furu P (2001) Bulinus nyassanus is intermediate host for Schistosoma haematobium in Lake Malaŵi. Ann Trop Med Hyg 95:353–360

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Madsen H, Stauffer JR Jr, Bloch P, Konings A, McKaye KR, Likongwe JS (2004) Schistosomiasis transmission in Lake Malaŵi. Afr J Aquat Sci 29:117–119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madsen H, Bloch P, Makaula P, Phiri H, Furu P, Stauffer JR (2011) Schistosomiasis in Lake Malaŵi villages. EcoHealth. doi:10.1007/s10393-011-0687-9

    Google Scholar 

  • Malan HL, Appleton CC, Day JA, Dini J (2009) Wetlands and invertebrate disease hosts: are we asking for trouble? Water SA 35:753–767

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy TS, Cooper GRJ, Tyson PD, Ellery WN (2000) Seasonal flooding in the Okavango Delta, Botswana—recent history and future prospects. S Afr J Sci 96:25–33

    Google Scholar 

  • Michelson EH (1961) The effects of temperature on growth and reproduction of Australorbis glabratus in the laboratory. Am J Hyg 73:66–74

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Michelson EH (1993) Adam’s rib awry? Women and schistosomasis. Soc Sci Med 37:493–501

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mmualefe LC, Torto N (2011) Water quality in the Okavango Delta. Water SA 37:411–418

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mqoqi NP (1991) Epidemiology of urinary schistosomiasis, Schistosoma haematobium, in the Port St Johns district of Transkei. Dissertation, University of Natal, Asherville

  • Pitchford RJ (1958) Influence of living conditions in bilharziasis infection rates in Africans in the Transvaal. Bull WHO 18:1088–1091

    Google Scholar 

  • Pitchford RJ (1966) Findings in relation to schistosome transmission in the field following the introduction of various control measures. S Afr Med J 40(suppl):3–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Pitchford RJ (1977) Aspects of schistosomiasis in potentially endemic areas in Africa. In: Gear JHS (ed) Medicine in a tropical environment, Proceedings of an international symposium, Pretoria, pp 667–677

  • Pitchford RJ, Visser PS (1962) Results of exposing mice to schistosomiasis by immersion in natural water. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 56:126–135

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pitchford RJ, Visser PS (1965) Some further observations on schistosome transmission in the eastern Transvaal. Bull WHO 32:83–104

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pitchford RJ, Visser PS (1972) Some observations on the hatching pattern of Schistosoma mansoni eggs. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 66:399–407

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pitchford RJ, Visser PS (1975) The effect of large dams on river water temperature below the dams, with special reference to bilharzia and the Verwoerd Dam. S Afr J Sci 71:212–213

    Google Scholar 

  • Quayle LM, Appleton CC, Dickens CWS (2010) The effects of stream flow manipulation on the invertebrate hosts of malaria, bilharzia and liver fluke disease. Water Research Commission Report TT 456/10, Pretoria

  • Schutte CHJ, Frank GH (1964) Observations on the distribution of freshwater Mollusca and chemistry of the natural waters in the south-eastern Transvaal and adjacent northern Swaziland. Bull WHO 30:389–400

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schutte CHJ, van Deventer JMG, Lamprecht T (1981) A cross-sectional study on the prevalence and intensity of infection with Schistosoma haematobium in students of northern KwaZulu. Am J Trop Med Hyg 30:364–372

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shiff CJ (1960) Observations on the capability of freshwater vector snails to survive dry conditions. J Trop Med Hyg 63:89–93

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shiff CJ (1964a) Studies on Bulinus (Physopsis) globosus in Rhodesia. I. The influence of temperature on the intrinsic rate of natural increase. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 58:94–105

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shiff CJ (1964b) Studies on Bulinus (Physopsis) globosus in Rhodesia. III—bionomics of a natural population existing in a temporary habitat. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 58:240–255

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shiff CJ (1966) The influence of temperature on the vertical movement of Bulinus (Physopsis) globosus in the laboratory and in the field. S Afr J Sci 62:210–214

    Google Scholar 

  • Shiff CJ, Clarke V de V (1967) The effect of snail surveillance in natural waterways on the transmission of Schistosoma haematobium in Rhodesia. Cent Afr J Med 13:133–137

  • Shiff CJ, Garnett B (1967) The influence of temperature on the intrinsic rate of natural increase of the freshwater snail Biomphalaria pfeifferi (Krauss) (Pulmonata: Planorbidae). Arch Hydrobiol 62:429–438

    Google Scholar 

  • Stauffer JR, Arnegard ME, Cetron M, Sullivan JJ, Chitsulo LA, Turner GF, Chiotha S, McKaye KR (1997) Controlling vectors and hosts of parasitic diseases using fishes. A case history of schistosomiasis in Lake Malaŵi. Bioscience 47:41–49

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stauffer JR, Madsen H, McKaye K, Konings A, Bloch P, Ferreri CP, Likongwe J, Makaula P (2006) Molluscivorous fishes—potential for biological control of schistosomiasis. EcoHealth 3:22–27

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sturrock RF (1965) The development of irrigation and its influence on the transmission of bilharziasis in Tanganyika. Bull World Health Organ 32:225–236

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Woin P, Brönmark C (1992) Effect of DDT and MCPA (4-chloro-2-methylphenoxyacetic acid) on reproduction of the pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis L. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 48:7–13

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wolmarans CT, de Kock KN, Bornman M, le Roux J (2004) The use of school-based questionnaires in the identification of factors and groups at risk of infection with Schistosoma mansoni in the endemic areas of the Limpopo Province, South Africa. S Afr J Epidemiol Infect 19:18–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Woolhouse MEJ, Chandiwana SK (1990) Population biology of the freshwater snail Bulinus globosus in the Zimbabwe highveld. J Appl Ecol 27:41–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Commission on Dams (2000) Dams and development. Final report of the World Commission on Dams, chapter 4: people and large dams—social performance. CD-ROM

  • Wright CA, Klein J, Eccles DH (1967) Endemic species of Bulinus (Mollusca: Planorbidae) in Lake Malawi (=Lake Nyassa). J Zool Lond 151:199–209

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank the editor of the Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology for permission to reproduce parts of the article by Appleton et al. (2008) (www.maney.co.uk/journals/atm and www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/atmp).

Funding

University of KwaZulu-Natal Research Fund.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban, 4000, South Africa

    C. C. Appleton

  2. DBL Centre for Health Research and Development, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsenvej 57, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark

    H. Madsen

Authors
  1. C. C. Appleton
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. H. Madsen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to C. C. Appleton.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Appleton, C.C., Madsen, H. Human schistosomiasis in wetlands in southern Africa. Wetlands Ecol Manage 20, 253–269 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11273-012-9266-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11273-012-9266-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation