Abstract
The review of studies on arsenic in African waters shows that arsenic can be found in high concentrations in both surface water and groundwater. Arsenic concentrations in African groundwater range between 0.02 and 1760 μg L−1, whilst the level of arsenic in surface water is ranged up to 10,000 μg L−1. This high level of arsenic in surface water is related to mining operations, agricultural drains, local sediments, disposal, and incineration of municipal and industrial wastes. However, mining activities remain the main source of surface water pollution. They have thereby a strong impact on the concentration of arsenic in the environment. As for groundwater, high levels of arsenic occur in natural conditions. It is due to the presence of iron oxides; sulphide minerals such as pyrite, arsenopyrite, and chalcopyrite; volcanic rocks; and geothermal waters. Few studies in Africa make the link between human health problems and high levels of arsenic in water. Only two articles were found dealing with arsenic remediation. This shows that arsenic, which constitutes a major public health issue in the world, has less interest in Africa although high concentrations of arsenic have been found in both surface water and groundwater in some African countries. Most of the studies carried out on arsenic issues in Africa are dedicated to the characterization and the quantification of the pollution, but studies on the risk to human health and treatment systems are limited. The arsenic issue in Africa needs special attention in order to avoid the problems experienced in some areas mainly in Asia.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abdel-Moati, A. R. (1990). Speciation and behavior of arsenic in the Nile Delta lakes. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 51(1–2), 117–132.
Adaikpoh, E. O., Nwajei, G. E., & Ogala, J. E. (2006). Heavy metals concentrations in coal and sediments from river Ekulu in Enugu, Coal City of Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 9(3), 5–8.
Adomako, E. E., Deacon, C., & Meharg, A. A. (2010). Variations in concentrations of arsenic and other potentially toxic elements in mine and paddy soils and irrigation waters from southern Ghana. Water Quality, Exposure and Health, 2(2), 115–124.
Ahmad, K., & Carboo, D. (2000). Speciation of As (III) and As (V) in some Ghanaian gold tailings by a simple distillation method. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 122(3–4), 317–326.
Akabzaa, T. M., Banoeng-Yakubo, B. K., & Seyire, J. S. (2009a). Impact of mining activities on water resources in the vicinity of the Obuasi mine. West African Journal of Applied Ecology, 11(1), 1–10.
Akabzaa, T. M., Jamieson, H. E., Jorgenson, N., & Nyame, K. (2009b). The combined impact of mine drainage in the Ankobra River Basin, SW Ghana. Mine Water and the Environment, 28(1), 50–64.
Akabzaa, T. M., & Yidana, S. M. (2012). An integrated approach to environmental risk assessment of cumulatively impacted drainage basin from mining activities in southwestern Ghana. Environmental Earth Sciences, 65(1), 291–312.
Akinsoji, O., Fatoki, O. S., Ximba, B. J., Opeolu, B. O., & Olatunji, O. S. (2013). Assessment of arsenic levels in Guguletu and Langa rivers in Cape Town, South Africa. International Journal, 8(25), 1334–1340.
Amasa, S. K. (1975). Arsenic pollution at Obuasi Goldmine, town, and surrounding countryside. Environmental Health Perspectives, 12, 131.
Amini, M., Abbaspour, K. C., Berg, M., Winkel, L., Hug, S. J., Hoehn, E., Yang, H., & Johnson, C. A. (2008). Statistical modeling of global geogenic arsenic contamination in groundwater. Environmental Science & Technology, 42(10), 3669–3675.
Amonoo-Neizer, E. H., & Amekor, E. M. (1993). Determination of total arsenic in environmental samples from Kumasi and Obuasi, Ghana. Environmental Health Perspectives, 101(1), 46–49.
Asante, K. A., Agusa, T., Subramanian, A., Ansa-Asare, O. D., Biney, C. A., & Tanabe, S. (2007). Contamination status of arsenic and other trace elements in drinking water and residents from Tarkwa, a historic mining township in Ghana. Chemosphere, 66(8), 1513–1522.
Asubiojo, O. I., Nkono, N. A., Ogunsua, A. O., Oluwole, A. F., Ward, N. I., Akanle, O. A., & Spyrou, N. M. (1997). Trace elements in drinking and groundwater samples in Southern Nigeria. Science of the Total Environment, 208(1), 1–8.
Baig, J. A., Kazi, T. G., Shah, A. Q., Kandhro, G. A., Afridi, H. I., Khan, S., & Kolachi, N. F. (2010). Biosorption studies on powder of stem of Acacia nilotica: Removal of arsenic from surface water. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 178, 941–948.
Baig, S. A., Sheng, T., Hu, Y., Xu, J., & Xu, X. (2015). Arsenic removal from natural water using low cost granulated adsorbents: a review. Clean–Soil, Air, Water, 43(1), 13–26.
Baioumy, H. M. (2005). Preliminary data on cadmium and arsenic geochemistry for some phosphorites in Egypt. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 41(3), 266–274.
Bhattacharya, P., Sracek, O., Eldvall, B., Asklund, R., Barmen, G., Jacks, G., Koku, J., Gustafsson, J.-E., Singh, N., & Balfors, B. B. (2012). Hydrogeochemical study on the contamination of water resources in a part of Tarkwa mining area, Western Ghana. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 66–67(2012), 72–84.
Bowell, R. J. (1994). Sorption of arsenic by iron oxides and oxyhydroxides in soils. Applied Geochemistry, 9(3), 279–286.
Bowell, R. J., Warren, A., Minjera, H. A., & Kimaro, N. (1995). Environmental impact of former gold mining on the Orangi River, Serengeti NP, Tanzania. Biogeochemistry, 28(3), 131–160.
Buamah, R., Petrusevski, B., & Schippers, J. (2008). Presence of arsenic, iron and manganese in groundwater within the gold-belt zone of Ghana. Journal of Water Supply Research and Technology-AQUA, 57(7), 519–529.
Chakraborti, D., Rahman, M. M., Paul, K., Chowdhury, U. K., Sengupta, M. K., Lodh, D., Chanda, C. R., Saha, K. C., & Mukherjee, S. C. (2002). Arsenic calamity in the Indian subcontinent: what lessons have been learned? Talanta, 58(1), 3–22.
Chen, S. L., Dzeng, S. R., Yang, M. H., Chiu, K. H., Shieh, G. M., & Wai, C. M. (1994). Arsenic species in groundwaters of the blackfoot disease area, Taiwan. Environmental Science & Technology, 28(5), 877–881.
Chowdhury, S. R., & Yanful, E. K. (2010). Arsenic and chromium removal by mixed magnetite–maghemite nanoparticles and the effect of phosphate on removal. Journal of Environmental Management, 91(11), 2238–2247.
COWI. (2005). Etude approfondie dans 8 villages de la région Nord ayant des forages à taux d’arsenic élevés. Copenhagen: COWI Engineering A/S.
Donia, A. M., Atia, A. A., & Mabrouk, D. A. (2011). Fast kinetic and efficient removal of As (V) from aqueous solution using anion exchange resins. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 191, 1–7.
Dsikowitzky, L., Mengesha, M., Dadebo, E., de Carvalho, C. E. V., & Sindern, S. (2013). Assessment of heavy metals in water samples and tissues of edible fish species from Awassa and Koka Rift Valley Lakes, Ethiopia. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185(4), 3117–3131.
Du, Q., Zhang, S., Pan, B., Lv, L., Zhang, W., & Zhang, Q. (2013). Bifunctional resin-ZVI composites for effective removal of arsenite through simultaneous adsorption and oxidation. Water Research, 47, 6064–6074.
Dutta, P. K., Ray, A. K., Sharma, V. K., & Millero, F. J. (2004). Adsorption of arsenate and arsenite on titanium dioxide suspensions. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 278, 270–275.
Dzoma, B. M., Moralo, R. A., Motsei, L. E., Ndou, R. V., & Bakunzi, F. R. (2010). Preliminary findings on the levels of five heavy metals in water, sediments, grass and various specimens from cattle grazing and watering in potentially heavy metal polluted areas of the north west province of South Africa. Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances, 9(24), 3026–3033.
Ebina, T., Minja, R. J., Wakui, Y., Chatterjee, A., Onodera, Y., & Stucky, G. D. (2003). Synthesis and arsenic adsorption capability of smectite-titanium oxide nanocomposite of tunable pore size. Clay Science, 12(2), 85–89.
Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) (2009). Africa Review Report on Mining. United Nations Economic and Social Council, E/ECA/CFSSD/6/7. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/AficanReviewReport-on-MiningSummary.pdf. Accessed 10 April 2015
El‐Ghawi, U. M. (2005). The level of trace elements in Tripoli City groundwater. Instrumentation Science and Technology, 33(5), 609–617.
El Hachimi, M. L., El Founti, L., Bouabdli, A., Saidi, N., Fekhoui, M., & Tassé, N. (2007). Pb et As dans des eaux alcalines minières: contamination, comportement et risques (mine abandonnée de Zeïda, Maroc). Revue des Sciences de l’Eau, 20(1), 1–13.
El Hachimi, M. L., El Hanbali, M., Fekhaoui, M., Bouabdli, A., EL Founti, A., & Saïdi, N. (2005). Impact d’un site minier abandonné sur l’environnement: cas de la mine de Zeïda (Haute Moulouya, Maroc). Bulletin de l’Institut Scientifique, Rabat, 27, 93–100.
Fatoki, O. S., Akinsoji, O. S., Ximba, B. J., Olujimi, O., & Ayanda, O. S. (2013). Arsenic contamination: Africa the missing gap. Asian Journal of Chemistry, 25(16), 9263–9268.
Gbadebo, A. M. (2005). Arsenic pollution in aquifers located within limestone areas of Ogun State, Nigeria. In Natural Arsenic in Groundwater: Proceedings of the Pre-Congress Workshop “Natural Arsenic in Groundwater”, 32nd International Geological Congress, Florence, Italy, 18–19 August 2004 (pp. 85–92). CRC Press.
Gbaruko, B. C., Ana, G., & Nwachukwu, J. K. (2010). Ecotoxicology of arsenic in the hydrosphere: Implications for public health. African Journal of Biotechnology, 7(25).
Gholami, M. M., Mokhtari, M. A., & Alizadeh Fard, M. R. (2006). Application of reverse osmosis technology for arsenic removal from drinking water. Desalination, 200, 725–727.
Golow, A. A., Schlueter, A., Amihere-Mensah, S., Granson, H. L. K., & Tetteh, M. S. (1996). Distribution of arsenic and sulphate in the vicinity of Ashanti Goldmine at Obuasi, Ghana. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 56(5), 703–710.
Goudie, A. S. (2005). The drainage of Africa since the Cretaceous. Geomorphology, 67(3), 437–456.
Harisha, R. S., Hosamani, K. M., Keri, R. S., Nataraj, S. K., & Aminabhavi, T. M. (2010). Arsenic removal from drinking water using thin film composite nanofiltration membrane. Desalination, 252(1–3), 75–80.
He, J., & Charlet, L. (2013). A review of arsenic presence in China drinking water. Journal of Hydrology, 492, 79–88.
Higy, C., & Cordey, L. (2011). Analyse de la qualité de l’eau de puits transformés. Un exemple d’application au Bénin, 1–23.
Hug, S. J., Canonica, L., Wegelin, M., Gechter, D., & vonGunten, U. (2001). Solar oxidation and removal of arsenic at circumneutral pH in iron containing waters. Environmental Science & Technology, 35, 2114–2121.
Huntsman-Mapila, P., Mapila, T., Letshwenyo, M., Wolski, P., & Hemond, C. (2006). Characterization of arsenic occurrence in the water and sediments of the Okavango Delta, NW Botswana. Applied Geochemistry, 21(8), 1376–1391.
Huntsman-Mapila, P., Nsengimana, H., Torto, N., & Diskin, S. (2011). Arsenic distribution and geochemistry in island groundwater of the Okavango Delta in Botswana. Sustaining Groundwater Resources, 55–67.
Jin, X., She, Q., Ang, X., & Tang, C. Y. (2012). Removal of boron and arsenic by forward osmosis membrane: influence of membrane orientation and organic fouling. Journal of Membrane Science, 389, 182–187.
Jonnalagadda, S. B., & Nenzou, G. (1996). Studies on arsenic rich mine dumps: III. Effect on the river water. Journal of Environmental Science & Health Part A, 31(10), 2547–2555.
Karim, M. D. (2000). Arsenic in groundwater and health problems in Bangladesh. Water Research, 34(1), 304–310.
Kassenga, G. R., & Mato, R. R. (2009). Arsenic contamination levels in drinking water sources in mining areas in Lake Victoria Basin, Tanzania, and its removal using stabilized ferralsols. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences, 2(4), 389–400.
Kortatsi, B. K., Asigbe, J., Dartey, G. A., Tay, C., Anornu, G. K., & Hayford, E. (2008a). Reconnaissance survey of arsenic concentration in ground-water in south-eastern Ghana. West African Journal of Applied Ecology, 13(1), 16–26.
Kortatsi, B. K., Tay, C. K., Anornu, G., Hayford, E., & Dartey, G. A. (2008b). Hydrogeochemical evaluation of groundwater in the lower Offin basin, Ghana. Environmental Geology, 53(8), 1651–1662.
Kusimi, J. M., & Kusimi, B. A. (2012). The hydrochemistry of water resources in selected mining communities in Tarkwa. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 112, 252–261.
Lombi, E., Wenzel, W. W., & Sletten, R. S. (1999). Arsenic adsorption by soils and iron-oxide-coated sand: kinetics and reversibility. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, 162(4), 451–456.
Mandal, B. K., & Suzuki, K. T. (2002). Arsenic round the world: a review. Talanta, 58(1), 201–235.
Matschullat, J. (2000). Arsenic in the geosphere–a review. The Science of the Total Environment, 249(1–3), 297–312.
Mkandawire, T. (2008). Quality of groundwater from shallow wells of selected villages in Blantyre District, Malawi. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 33(8), 807–811.
Mladenov, N., Wolski, P., Hettiarachchi, G. M., Murray-Hudson, M., Enriquez, H., Damaraju, S., & Masamba, W. (2013). Abiotic and biotic factors influencing the mobility of arsenic in groundwater of a through-flow island in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Journal of Hydrology, 518, 326–341.
Mondal, P., Bhowmick, S., Chatterjee, D., Figoli, A., & Van der Bruggen, B. (2013). Remediation of inorganic arsenic in groundwater for safe water supply: A critical assessment of technological solutions. Chemosphere, 92(2), 157–170.
Ning, R. Y. (2002). Arsenic removal by reverse osmosis. Desalination, 143(3), 237–241.
Nriagu, J. O., Bhattacharya, P., Mukherjee, A. B., Bundschuh, J., Zevenhoven, R., & Loeppert, R. H. (2007). Arsenic in soil and groundwater: an overview. Trace Metals and other Contaminants in the Environment, 9, 3–60.
Nzihou, J. F., Bouda, M., Hamidou, S., & Diarra, J. (2013). Arsenic in drinking water toxicological risk assessment in the north region of Burkina Faso. Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 5, 46.
Obiri, S., Dodoo, D. K., Okai–Sam, F., Essumang, D. K., & Adjorlolo-Gasokpoh, A. (2006). Cancer and non-cancer health risk from eating cassava grown in some mining communities in Ghana. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 118(1–3), 37–49.
Ogola, J. S., Mundalamo, H. R., & Brandl, G. (2011). Investigation of the origin and distribution of heavy metals around Ebenezer Dam, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Water SA, 37(2), 173–179.
Ouedraogo, J.-V. (2006). Intoxication a’ l’arsenic dans la région du Nord: deux morts et onze forages “sous embargo”. Sidwaya, 5786, 20–21.
Ouédraogo, O., & Amyot, M. (2013). Mercury, arsenic and selenium concentrations in water and fish from sub-Saharan semi-arid freshwater reservoirs (Burkina Faso). Science of the Total Environment, 444, 243–254.
Pallier, V., Feuillade-Cathalifaud, G., Serpaud, B., & Bollinger, J. C. (2010). Effect of organic matter on arsenic removal during coagulation/flocculation treatment. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 342, 26–32.
Pritchard, M., Mkandawire, T., & O’Neill, J. G. (2008). Assessment of groundwater quality in shallow wells within the southern districts of Malawi. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 33(8), 812–823.
Pritchard, M., Mkandawire, T., & O’Neill, J. G. (2007). Biological, chemical and physical drinking water quality from shallow wells in Malawi: Case study of Blantyre, Chiradzulu and Mulanje. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 32(15), 1167–1177.
Qu, D., Wang, J., Hou, D., Luan, Z., Fan, B., & Zhao, C. (2009). Experimental study of arsenic removal by direct contact membrane distillation. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 163, 874–879.
Rango, T., Bianchini, G., Beccaluva, L., & Tassinari, R. (2010). Geochemistry and water quality assessment of central Main Ethiopian Rift natural waters with emphasis on source and occurrence of fluoride and arsenic. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 57(5), 479–491.
Rango, T., Vengosh, A., Dwyer, G., & Bianchini, G. (2013). Mobilization of arsenic and other naturally occurring contaminants in groundwater of the Main Ethiopian Rift aquifers. Water Research, 47(15), 5801–5818.
Rebelo, L. M., McCartney, M. P., & Finlayson, C. M. (2010). Wetlands of sub-Saharan Africa: distribution and contribution of agriculture to livelihoods. Wetlands Ecology and Management, 18(5), 557–572.
Reimann, C., Bjorvatn, K., Frengstad, B., Melaku, Z., Tekle-Haimanot, R., & Siewers, U. (2003). Drinking water quality in the Ethiopian section of the East African Rift Valley I—data and health aspects. Science of the Total Environment, 311(1), 65–80.
Rezaie-Boroon, M. H., Gnandi, K., & Folly, K.-M. (2011). Presence and distribution of toxic trace elements in water and sediments of the southern Togo rivers watershed, West Africa. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, 20(7), 1853–1865.
Rossiter, H., Owusu, P. A., Awuah, E., MacDonald, A. M., & Schäfer, A. I. (2010). Chemical drinking water quality in Ghana: Water costs and scope for advanced treatment. Science of the Total Environment, 408(11), 2378–2386.
Serfor-Armah, Y., Nyarko, B. J. B., Dampare, S. B., & Adomako, D. (2006). Levels of arsenic and antimony in water and sediment from Prestea, a gold mining town in Ghana and its environs. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 175(1), 181–192.
Singh, R., Singh, S., Parihar, P., Singh, V. P., & Prasad, S. M. (2015). Arsenic contamination, consequences and remediation techniques: A review. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 112, 247–270.
Smedley, P. L. (1996). Arsenic in rural groundwater in Ghana: part special issue: hydrogeochemical studies in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 22(4), 459–470.
Smedley, P. L., Edmunds, W. M., & Pelig-Ba, K. B. (1996). Mobility of arsenic in groundwater in the Obuasi gold-mining area of Ghana: some implications for human health. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 113(1), 163–181.
Smedley, P. L., & Kinniburgh, D. G. (2002). A review of the source, behaviour and distribution of arsenic in natural waters. Applied Geochemistry, 17(5), 517–568.
Smedley, P. L., Knudsen, J., & Maiga, D. (2007). Arsenic in groundwater from mineralised Proterozoic basement rocks of Burkina Faso. Applied Geochemistry, 22(5), 1074–1092.
Smith, A. H., Hopenhayn-Rich, C., Bates, M. N., Goeden, H. M., Hertz-Picciotto, I., Duggan, H. M., Wood, R., Kosnett, M. J., & Smith, M. T. (1992). Cancer risks from arsenic in drinking water. Environmental Health Perspectives, 97, 259–267.
Somé, I., Sakira, A., Ouédraogo, M., Ouédraogo, T., Traoré, A., Sondo, B., & Guissou, P. (2012). Arsenic levels in tube-wells water, food, residents’ urine and the prevalence of skin lesions in Yatenga province, Burkina Faso. Interdisciplinary Toxicology, 5(1), 38–41.
Taylor, H., Appleton, J. D., Lister, R., Smith, B., Chitamweba, D., Mkumbo, O., Machiwa, J. F., Tesha, A. L., & Beinhoff, C. (2005). Environmental assessment of mercury contamination from the Rwamagasa artisanal gold mining centre, Geita District, Tanzania. Science of the Total Environment, 343(1), 111–133.
Tripathy, S. S., & Raichur, A. M. (2008). Enhanced adsorption capacity of activated alumina by impregnation with alum for removal of As (V) from water. Chemical Engineering Journal, 138, 179–186.
Wang, S., & Mulligan, C. N. (2006). Occurrence of arsenic contamination in Canada: Sources, behavior and distribution. Science of the Total Environment, 366(2–3), 701–721.
Yidana, S., Ophori, D., & Banoeng-Yakubo, B. (2008). Groundwater availability in the shallow aquifers of the southern voltaian system: a simulation and chemical analysis. Environmental Geology, 55(8), 1647–1657.
Zhao, S., Zou, L., & Mulcahy, D. (2011). Effects of membrane orientation on process performance in forward osmosis applications. Journal of Membrane Science, 382, 308–15.
Acknowledgements
This manuscript is made possible by the support of the American People through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) for providing doctoral fellowship.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ahoulé, D.G., Lalanne, F., Mendret, J. et al. Arsenic in African Waters: A Review. Water Air Soil Pollut 226, 302 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-015-2558-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-015-2558-4