Abstract
Public awareness of water quality concerns has increased since the Flint, MI crisis, but knowledge about water resources management remains low. Consequently, acceptance of potable reuse also remains low. A mixed methods approach is utilized in three phases to determine if direct messaging (information about de facto water reuse aimed at increasing knowledge about wastewater reuse) increases acceptance of planned potable reuse, and if indirect messaging (local public notifications about health-based drinking water violations) affects the effectiveness of the direct messaging. In Phase 1, a spatial analysis was conducted to validate the use of local water quality violations as an indirect message. In Phase 2, a within-subjects comparison was employed to test whether consumers change their potable reuse perceptions, intentions, and attitudes after reading a knowledge-based message regarding water reuse. In Phase 3, the effect of indirect messaging, as well as the interaction of direct and indirect messaging were further analyzed. Phase 1 results match previous findings that suggest that drinking water violations tend to occur and reoccur in spatially specific patterns. Phase 2 confirms the utility of direct messaging to improve potable reuse acceptance. Phase 3 shows that indirect messaging interacts with consumers’ education level and actual knowledge to impact potable reuse acceptance.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
Please consult the corresponding author.
Code Availability
Not applicable.
References
Alba JW, Hutchinson JW (2000) Knowledge calibration: What consumers know and what they think they know. J Consum Res 27:123–156. https://doi.org/10.1086/314317
Allaire M, Wu H, Lall U (2018) National trends in drinking water quality violations . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 115:2078–2083. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1719805115
Allaire M, Mackay T, Zheng S, Lall U (2019) Detecting community response to water quality violations using bottled water sales. Proc Natl Acad Sci 116:20917–20922
Anadu EC, Harding AK (2000) Risk perception and bottled water use . J Am Water Works Assoc 92:82–92. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.2000.tb09051.x
Berg E, Kim HJ, Rumpler J (2018) Troubled waters: Industrial pollution still threatens American waterways) Troubled waters: Industrial pollution still threatens American waterways. Environment America Research & Policy Center. https://environmentamerica.org/sites/environment/files/reports/EA_TroubledWaters_scrn_0.pdf. Accessed 17 May 2021
Fielding KS, Gardner J, Leviston Z, Price J (2015) Comparing public perceptions of alternative water sources for potable use: The case of rainwater, stormwater, desalinated water, and recycled water. Water Resour Manag 29:4501–4518
Fielding KS, Dolnicar S, Schultz T (2019) Public acceptance of recycled water International. J Water Resour Dev 35:551–586. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2017.1419125
Furlong C, Jegatheesan J, Currell M, Iyer-Raniga U, Khan T, Ball AS (2019) Is the global public willing to drink recycled water? A review for researchers and practitioners. Util Policy 56:53–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jup.2018.11.003
Gil-Meseguer E, Bernabé-Crespo MB, Gómez-Espín JM (2019) Recycled sewage-a water resource for dry regions of Southeastern Spain. Water Resour Manag 33:725–737
Griffin M, Babin BJ, Attaway JS (1996) Anticipation of injurious consumption outcomes and its impact on consumer attributions of blame. J Acad Mark Sci 24:314–327
Hu H-f, Krishen AS (2019) When is enough, enough? Investigating product reviews and information overload from a consumer empowerment perspective. J Bus Res 100:27–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.03.011
Javidi A, Pierce G (2018) U.S. households’ perception of drinking water as unsafe and its consequences: examining alternative choices to the tap. Water Resour Res 54:6100–6113. https://doi.org/10.1029/2017WR022186
Kirchhoff CJ, Flagg JA, Zhuang Y, Utemuratov B (2019) Understanding and improving enforcement and compliance with drinking water standards. Water Resour Manag 33:1647–1663
Koop S, Van Dorssen A, Brouwer S (2019) Enhancing domestic water conservation behaviour: A review of empirical studies on influencing tactics. J Environ Manage 247:867–876
Krishen AS, Homer PM (2012) Do opposites attract? Understanding opposition in promotion. J Bus Res 65:1144–1151
Krishen AS, Raschke RL, Mejza M (2010) Guidelines for shaping perceptions of fairness of transportation infrastructure policies: the case of vehicle mileage tax. Trans J 49:24–38
Krishen AS, Agarwal S, Kachroo P (2016) Is having accurate knowledge necessary for implementing safe practices? A consumer folk theories-of-mind perspective on the impact of price. Eur J Market 50:1073–1093. https://doi.org/10.1108/ejm-01-2015-0027
Lee M, Tansel B (2013) Water conservation quantities vs customer opinion and satisfaction with water efficient appliances in Miami Florida. J Environ Manag 128:683–689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.05.044
Lord KR, Lee M-S, Sauer PL (1994) Program context antecedents of attitude toward radio commercials. J Acad Mark Sci 22:3–15
Moors MR (2019) What is Flint? Place, storytelling, and social media narrative reclamation during the Flint water crisis. Inf Commun Soc 22:808–822
Pape AD, Seo M (2015) Reports of water quality violations induce consumers to buy bottled water. Agricultural and Resource Economics Review 44(1):78–93. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1068280500004639
Pearson YE, Liu-Thompkins Y (2012) Consuming direct-to-consumer genetic tests: the role of genetic literacy and knowledge calibration. J Public Policy Mark 31:42–57. https://doi.org/10.1509/jppm.10.066
Pfeiffer BE, Deval H, Silvera DH, Cronley ML, Kardes FR (2019) The effect of message credibility, need for cognitive closure, and information sufficiency on thought-induced attitude change. Mark Lett 30:193–205. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-019-09491-x
Rice J, Westerhoff P (2015) Spatial and temporal variation in de facto wastewater reuse in drinking water systems across the U.S.A . Environ Sci Technol 49:982–989. https://doi.org/10.1021/es5048057
Rice J, Wutich A, White DD, Westerhoff P (2016) Comparing actual de facto wastewater reuse and its public acceptability: A three city case study. Sustain Cities Soc 27:467–474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2016.06.007
Rosinger AY, Herrick KA, Wutich AY, Yoder JS, Ogden CL (2018) Disparities in plain, tap and bottled water consumption among US adults: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2007–2014. Public Health Nutr 21:1455–1464
Roy DP, Cornwell TB (2004) The effects of consumer knowledge on responses to event sponsorships. Psychol Mark 21:185–207
Seelen LMS, Flaim G, Jennings E, Domis LND (2019) Saving water for the future: Public awareness of water usage and water quality. J Environ Manag 242:246–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.04.047
Smith HM, Brouwer S, Jeffrey P, Frijns J (2018) Public responses to water reuse–Understanding the evidence. J Environ Manag 207:43–50
Stoutenborough JW, Vedlitz A (2014) Public attitudes toward water management and drought in the United States. Water Resour Manag 28:697–714
United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (2018) Potable Reuse Compendium. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2018-01/documents/potablereusecompendium_3.pdf. Accessed 17 May 2021
United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (2019) National Water Reuse Action Plan - Draft. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2019-09/documents/water-reuse-action-plan-draft-2019.pdf. Accessed 17 May 2021
VanDerslice J (2011) Drinking water infrastructure and environmental disparities: evidence and methodological considerations. Am J Public Health 101:S109–S114. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2011.300189
Vörösmarty CJ et al (2010) Global threats to human water security river biodiversity. Nature 467:555–561. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09440
Yoo B, Donthu N, Lee S (2000) An examination of selected marketing mix elements and brand equity. J Acad Mark Sci 28:195–211
Yu TK, Lin FY, Kao KY, Chao CM, Yu TY (2019) An innovative environmental citizen behavior model: Recycling intention as climate change mitigation strategies. J Environ Manag 247:499–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.06.101
Zhen N, Barnett J, Webber M (2020) Is trust always a precondition for effective water resource management? Water Resour Manag 34(4):1423–1436
Zivin JG, Neidell M, Schlenker W (2011) Water quality violations and avoidance behavior: Evidence from bottled water consumption. Am Econ Rev 101:448–453. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.101.3.448
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Troesh Center for Entrepreneurship and Innovation, specifically the Troesh Research Grants program, the Harold & Muriel Berkman Charitable Foundation, Inc., and a Faculty Opportunity Award from University of Nevada, Las Vegas for their encouragement and financial support.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Not applicable.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest/Competing interests
None.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Barnes, J.L., Krishen, A.S. & Hu, Hf. Untapped Knowledge about Water Reuse: the Roles of Direct and Indirect Educational Messaging. Water Resour Manage 35, 2601–2615 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-021-02853-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-021-02853-z