Abstract
Regions and basins suffering from water scarcity have promoted the modernization of irrigation systems, defined as irrigation efficiency enhancement as a measure for the adaptation to a growing demand and a limited supply of water resources. In the period 2002–2015, Spain carried out an intense irrigation modernization process with the aim of achieving significant water savings and higher flexibility and to guarantee supply, among other favourable outcomes (e.g. environmental and socio-economic). Nevertheless, certain unfavourable effects of irrigation modernization also need to be discussed. This study analyses these effects in Spain based upon a DPSIR (Driving forces, Pressures, States, Impacts, and Responses) framework and a wide-ranging review of the existing empirical literature. Our findings are highly relevant to inform decision-makers in the planning of future irrigation modernization programmes worldwide.

Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abadia R, Rocamora MC, Corcoles JI, Ruiz-Canales A, Martinez-Romero A, Moreno MA (2010) Comparative analysis of energy efficiency in water users associations. Span J Agric Res 8:9. https://doi.org/10.5424/sjar/201008S2-1356
Alcón F, Soto-García M, Martínez V, Martín-Górriz B, de Miguel MD (2017) Factores que explican el desempeño de las comunidades de regantes modernizadas. In: Berbel J, Gutiérrez-Martín C (eds) Efectos de la modernización de regadíos en España, Economía, vol 30. Almería, Cajamar Caja Rural, pp 329–344
Aw-Hassan A, Rida F, Telleria R, Bruggeman A (2014) The impact of food and agricultural policies on groundwater use in Syria. J Hydrol 513:204–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.03.043
Barros R, Isidoro D, Aragüés R (2012) Irrigation management, nitrogen fertilization and nitrogen losses in the return flows of La Violada irrigation district (Spain). Agric Ecosyst Environ 155:161–171
Berbel J, Gutiérrez-Martín C (2017) Efectos de la modernización de regadíos en España, Economía, vol 30. Cajamar Caja Rural, Almería
Berbel J, Gutierrez-Martin C, Rodriguez-Diaz JA, Camacho E, Montesinos P (2015) Literature review on rebound effect of water saving measures and analysis of a spanish case study. Water Resour Manag 29(3):663–678. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-014-0839-0
Berbel J, Gutiérrez-Martín C, Expósito A (2018) Impacts of irrigation efficiency improvement on water use, water consumption and response to water price at field level. Agric Water Manag 203:423–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2018.02.026
Borrego-Marín MM, Berbel J (2017) Impacto de la modernización de regadíos sobre el uso del agua y otras variables socioeconómicas en comunidades de regantes de Andalucía Occidental. In: Berbel J, Gutiérrez Martín C (eds) Efectos de la modernización de regadíos en España, Economía, vol 30. Almería, Cajamar Caja Rural, pp 345–354
Borrego-Marín MM, Berbel J (2019) Cost-benefit analysis of irrigation modernization in Guadalquivir River Basin. Agric Water Manag 212:416–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2018.08.032
Brouwer C, Prins K, Heibloem M (1989) Irrigation water management: irrigation scheduling. Training Manual num. 4. FAO, Rome
Camacho E, Rodríguez-Díaz JA, Montesinos P (2017) Ahorro de agua y consumo de energía en la modernización de regadíos. In: Berbel J, Gutiérrez Martín C (eds) Efectos de la modernización de regadíos en España, Economía, vol 30. Almería, Cajamar Caja Rural, pp 221–250
Castillo M, Borrego-Marín MM, Berbel J (2017) Perspectiva del agricultor sobre el efecto de la modernización de regadíos en la distribución de cultivos. In: Berbel J, Gutiérrez Martín C (eds) Efectos de la modernización de regadíos en España, Economía, vol 30. Almería, Cajamar Caja Rural, pp 329–344
Confederación Hidrográfica del Guadalquivir (CHG) (2013) Plan Hidrológico de la Demarcación Hidrográfica del Guadalquivir. Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente, Madrid
Consejería de Agricultura y Pesca (2011) Agenda del Regadío Andaluz. Horizonte 2015. Junta de Andalucía, Sevilla
Corominas J, Cuevas R (2017) Modernización de regadíos y ahorro de agua. In: Berbel J, Gutiérrez Martín C (eds) Efectos de la modernización de regadíos en España, Economía, vol 30. Almería, Cajamar Caja Rural, pp 273–308
Custodio E, Andreu-Rodes JM, Aragón R, Estrela T, Ferrer J, García-Aróstegui JL, Manzano M, Rodríguez-Hernández L, Sahuquillo A, del Villar A (2016) Groundwater intensive use and mining in south-eastern peninsular Spain: hydrogeological, economic and social aspects. Sci Total Environ 559:302–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.107
del Campo A (2017) La modernización del regadío español desde el punto de vista social. In: Berbel J, Gutiérrez-Martín C (eds) Efectos de la modernización de regadíos en España, Economía, vol 30. Cajamar Caja Rural, Almería, p 450
Estrela T (2017) La modernización de regadíos en la planificación hidrológica: el caso de la Demarcación Hidrográfica del Júcar. In: Berbel J, Gutiérrez Martín C (eds) Efectos de la modernización de regadíos en España, Economía, vol 30. Almería, Cajamar Caja Rural, pp 355–376
European Commission (2011) Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, A resource-efficient Europe – Flagship initiative under the Europe 2020 Strategy. European Commission. Brussels. 26.1.2011
European Commission (2012) A blueprint to safeguard Europe’s water resources. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Brussels, 14.11.2012, COM(2012)673 final
Expósito A, Berbel J (2017a) Agricultural irrigation water use in a closed basin and the impacts on water productivity: the case of the Guadalquivir river basin (southern Spain). Water 9(2):136. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9020136
Expósito A, Berbel J (2017b) Why is water pricing ineffective for deficit irrigation schemes? A case study in southern Spain. Water Resour Manag 31(3):1047–1059. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-016-1563-8
Fernández-García I, Rodríguez-Díaz JA, Camacho-Poyato E, Montesinos P, Berbel J (2014) Effects of modernization and medium term perspectives on water and energy use in irrigation districts. Agric Syst 131:56–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2014.08.002
García-Garizábal I, Causapé J (2010) Influence of irrigation water management on the quantity and quality of irrigation return flows. J Hydrol 385(1):36–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.02.002
García-Mollá M, Sanchis-Ibor C, Ortega-Reig MV, Avellá-Reus L (2013) Irrigation associations coping with drought: the case of four irrigation districts in Eastern Spain. In: Schwabe K, Albiac Murillo J, Connor JD, Hassan RM, Meza González L (eds) Drought in arid and semi-arid regions. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 101–122. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6636-5_6
García-Mollá M, Sanchis-Ibor C, Avellá-Reus L (2017) La modernización del regadío en las entidades de riego valencianas. Efectos en el uso y costes del agua. In: Berbel J, Gutiérrez Martín C (eds) Efectos de la modernización de regadíos en España, Economía, vol, vol 30. Cajamar Caja Rural, Almería, pp 377–398
Grafton RQ (2017) Editorial: water reform and planning in the Murray–Darling Basin, Australia. Water Econ Policy 3(3):1702001. https://doi.org/10.1142/s2382624x17020015
Gutiérrez-Martín C, Borrego-Marín M, Berbel J (2017) The economic analysis of water use in the water framework directive based on the system of environmental-economic accounting for water: a case study of the Guadalquivir River Basin. Water 9(3):180. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9030180
Henke R, Severini S, Sorrentino A (2011) From the Fischler reform to the future of CAP. In: Sorrentino A, Henke R, Severini S (eds) The common agricultural policy after the Fischler reform. Ahsgate Publishing, London
INE (Instituto Nacional de Estadística) (2017) Encuesta sobre el uso del agua en el sector agrario. Serie 2000–2015. Madrid
Jiménez-Aguirre MT, Isidoro D (2018) Hydrosaline balance in and nitrogen loads from an irrigation district before and after modernization. Agric Water Manag 208:163–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2018.06.008
Kristensen P (2004) The DPSIR framework. Paper presented at the workshop on a comprehensive/detailed assessment of the vulnerability of water resources to environmental change in Africa using river basin approach, Nairobi, Kenya, 27-29 September
Lecina S, Isidoro D, Playán E, Aragüés R (2010) Irrigation modernization and water conservation in Spain: the case of Riegos del Alto Aragón. Agric Water Manag 97(10):1663–1675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2010.05.023
Loch A, Adamson D (2015) Drought and the rebound effect: a Murray–Darling Basin example. Nat Hazards 79(3):1429–1449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-015-1705-y
López-Gunn E (2017) Impact of irrigation modernization in water mass status in Duero River Basin. Paper presented at the efficiency-oriented water management. From panaceas to actual solutions, CMCC-Center Mediterranean for climatic change. Venice, Italy.
López-Gunn E, Mayor B, Dumont A (2012) Implications of the modernization of irrigation systems. In: De Stefano L, Llamas MR (eds) Water, agriculture and the environment in Spain: can we square the circle. CRC Press/Balkema, Leiden, pp 241–255
MAGRAMA (2016) Encuesta sobre Superficies y Rendimientos de Cultivos. Informe sobre Regadíos en España. Ministerio de Agricultura y Pesca, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente, Madrid
Mall RK, Gupta A, Singh R, Singh RS, Rathore LS (2006) Water resources and climate change: an Indian perspective. Curr Sci 90(12):1610–1626
MAPA (2002) Real Decreto 329/2002, de 5 de abril, por el que se aprueba el Plan Nacional de Regadíos vol Boletín Oficial del Estado No. 101 April 27, 2002. Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación, Madrid, Spain
MAPA (2006) Real Decreto 287/2006, de 10 de marzo, por el que se regulan las obras urgentes de mejora y consolidación de regadíos, con objeto de tener un adecuado ahorro de agua que palie los daños producidos por la sequía vol Boletín Oficial del Estado No. 60 March 11, 2006. Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación, Madrid, Spain
MAPA (2008) Real Decreto 1725/2007, de 21 de diciembre, por el que cierran las inversiones del primer horizonte del Plan Nacional de Regadíos en mejora y consolidación de regadíos vol Boletín Oficial del Estado No. 16 January, 2008. Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación, Madrid, Spain
MAPAMA (2017) Anuario de Estadística 2016. Ministerio de Agricultura y Pesca, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente, Madrid
MARM (2010) Estrategia Nacional para la modernización sostenible de los regadíos H2015. Informe de sostenibilidad ambiental. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Medio Rural y Marino (MARM), Madrid
Mateos L (2008) Identifying a new paradigm for assessing irrigation system performance. Irrig Sci 27(1):25–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-008-0118-z
Mateos L, Araus JL (2016) Hydrological, engineering, agronomical, breeding and physiological pathways for the effective and efficient use of water in agriculture. Agric Water Manag 164(Part 1):190–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2015.10.017
Mesa-Jurado MA, Martin-Ortega J, Ruto E, Berbel J (2012) The economic value of guaranteed water supply for irrigation under scarcity conditions. Agric Water Manag 113:10–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2012.06.009
Molle F (2008) Why enough is never enough: the societal determinants of river basin closure. Int J Water Resour D 24(2):217–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900620701723646
Molle F, Tanouti O (2017) Squaring the circle: agricultural intensification vs. water conservation in Morocco. Agric Water Manag 192(Supplement C):170–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2017.07.009
Moreno MA, Ortega JF, Córcoles JI, Martínez A, Tarjuelo JM (2010) Energy analysis of irrigation delivery systems: monitoring and evaluation of proposed measures for improving energy efficiency. Irrig Sci 28(5):445–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-010-0206-8
Mushtaq S, Maraseni TN, Reardon-Smith K (2013) Climate change and water security: estimating the greenhouse gas costs of achieving water security through investments in modern irrigation technology. Agric Syst 117:78–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2012.12.009
Naranjo JE (2010) Problemática de la modernización de regadíos. Paper presented at the XII Congreso Nacional de Comunidades de Regantes de España, Tarragona, 12 de mayo
Owen D (2014) Overallocation, conflict, and water transfers. Environ Res Lett 9(9):091005
Perry C, Steduto P, Karajeh F (2017) Does improved irrigation technology save water? A review of the evidence. FAO, Cairo http://www.fao.org/3/b-i7090e.pdf
Playán E, Mateos L (2006) Modernization and optimization of irrigation systems to increase water productivity. Agric Water Manag 80(1–3):100–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2005.07.007
Randall A (1981) Property entitlements and pricing policies for a maturing water economy. Aust J Agric Resour Econ 25(3):195–220
Rocamora C, Vera J, Abadía R (2013) Strategy for efficient energy management to solve energy problems in modernized irrigation: analysis of the Spanish case. Irrig Sci 31(5):1139–1158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-012-0394-5
Rodríguez-Díaz JA, Camacho-Poyato E, López-Luque R (2004) Applying benchmarking and data envelopment analysis (DEA) techniques to irrigation districts in Spain. Irrig Drain 53(2):135–143. https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.128
Rodríguez-Díaz JA, Pérez-Urrestarazu L, Camacho-Poyato E, Montesinos P (2011) The paradox of irrigation scheme modernization: more efficient water use linked to higher energy demand. Span J Agric Res 9(4):1000–1008
Sanchis-Ibor C, García-Mollá M, Avellà-Reus L (2017) Effects of drip irrigation promotion policies on water use and irrigation costs in Valencia, Spain. Water Policy 19(1):165–180. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2016.025
Scanlon BR, Faunt CC, Longuevergne L, Reedy RC, Alley WM, McGuire VL, McMahon PB (2012) Groundwater depletion and sustainability of irrigation in the US High Plains and Central Valley. PNAS 109(24):9320–9325. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1200311109
Scott CA, Vicuña S, Blanco-Gutiérrez I, Meza F, Varela-Ortega C (2014) Irrigation efficiency and water-policy implications for river basin resilience. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 18(4):1339–1348. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-18-1339-2014
United Nations (2012) System of Environmental-Economic Accounting for Water (SEEA-Water). Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Statistics Division. ST/ESA/STAT/SER.F/100 New York, USA. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/seeaw/seeawaterwebversion.pdf
van der Kooij S, Kuper M, de Fraiture C, Lankford B, Zuarteveen M (2017) Re-allocating yet-to-be-saved water in irrigation modernization projects. The case of the Bittit irrigation system, Morocco. In: Venot J-P, Kuper M, Zwarteveen M (eds) Drip irrigation for agriculture: untold stories of efficiency, innovation and development. Routledge, Abingdon, p 68. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315537146
van Dijk AIJM, Beck HE, Crosbie RS, de Jeu RAM, Liu YY, Podger GM, Timbal B, Viney NR (2013) The millennium drought in Southeast Australia (2001–2009): natural and human causes and implications for water resources, ecosystems, economy, and society. Water Resour Res 49(2):1040–1057. https://doi.org/10.1002/wrcr.20123
Varela-Ortega C (2007) Policy-driven determinants of irrigation development and environmental sustainability: a case study in Spain. In: Molle F, Berkoff J (eds) Irrigation water pricing: the gap between theory and practice. Cabi, Wallingford, pp 328–346
Whittlesey N (2003) Improving irrigation efficiency through technology adoption: when will it conserve water? Dev Water Sci 50:53–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-5648(03)80007-2
Xie Y, Zilberman D (2018) Water storage capacity versus water use efficiency: substitutes or complements? J Assoc Environ Resour Econ 5(1):265–299. https://doi.org/10.1086/694178
Acknowledgements
The authors have received financial support from MINECO-Grant: AGL-2014-53417-R. Authors acknowledge the suggestions from anonymous reviewers.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
None.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Berbel, J., Expósito, A., Gutiérrez-Martín, C. et al. Effects of the Irrigation Modernization in Spain 2002–2015. Water Resour Manage 33, 1835–1849 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-019-02215-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-019-02215-w

