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Crowded Advocacy: Framing Dynamic in the Fracking Controversy in New York

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Abstract

In the hydrofracturing controversy in New York advocates hotly contested notions of the problem, what should be done, by whom, and how. This controversy can be characterized as “crowded advocacy,” involving intense mobilization and counter-mobilization of advocates with competing perspectives. Extant theories about the expansion of advocacy organizations are unclear about how advocates’ interactions shape the policy arena, particularly when there is competition within and across multiple coalitions. This article contributes by asking: How do advocates’ interactive framing dynamics shape public discourse when advocacy is crowded? It assumes that advocacy in general, and framing in particular, evolves as advocates respond to each other. I find that competing “discourse coalitions” collectively influence public discourse by articulating divergent notions of (1) what constitutes credible knowledge, (2) who can speak with authority on the issues, and (3) what institutional arrangements should be activated to manage risks. The consequence is that advocates have to react to others' framing on these issues—to defend their knowledge, their credibility, and specific institutions, rather than arguing their case on the merits. The implication is that advocacy is not only the means of influence (strategy) but also creates the context of advocacy in particular ways in a crowded field.

Résumé

Dans le cadre de la controverse de la fracturation hydraulique à New York, les défenseurs ont fortement contesté les notions du problème et ce qui doit être fait, par qui et comment. Cette controverse peut être caractérisée comme une « défense engorgée » impliquant une mobilisation intense et une contre-mobilisation de défenseurs aux points de vue concurrents. Les théories existantes sur l’expansion des organismes de défense ne définissent pas clairement la façon dont les interactions des défenseurs influencent la scène politique, surtout en présence de concurrence à l’intérieur des coalitions et entre celles-ci. Cet article pose les questions suivantes: de quelle façon les dynamiques de formulation interactive des défenseurs influencent-elles le discours public lorsque la défense est engorgée? On présume que la défense en général et la formulation en particulier évoluent lorsque les défenseurs réagissent les uns aux autres. J’avance que les « coalitions discursives » concurrentes influencent collectivement le discours public en articulant des notions divergentes de 1) ce qui constitue des connaissances crédibles, 2) qui peut discuter des enjeux avec autorité, et 3) quels accords institutionnels devraient être activés pour gérer les risques. En conséquence, les défenseurs doivent réagir à d’autres formulations desdits enjeux, notamment pour défendre leurs connaissances, leur crédibilité et des institutions données, au lieu de défendre leur cause en fonction du bien-fondé. La défense est ainsi non seulement un moyen d’influence (stratégie), mais elle crée aussi, de façons particulières, son propre contexte dans un domaine engorgé.

Zusammenfassung

In der Hydrofracturing-Kontroverse in New York kam es zu großen Auseinandersetzungen zwischen Interessenvertretern dahingehend, was das Problem war und was von wem wie zu tun sei. Diese Kontroverse kann als „übervolle Interessenvertretung“charakterisiert werden, die eine intensive Mobililisierung und Gegenmobilisierung von Interessenvertretern mit konkurrierenden Perspektiven beinhaltet. Bestehende Theorien über die Ausweitung von Advokatenorganisationen geben nicht eindeutig Aufschluss darüber, wie die Interaktionen von Interessenvertretern die politische Arena beeinflussen, insbesondere wenn innerhalb zahlreicher Koalitionen und über die Koalitionen hinaus Konkurrenz herrscht. Diese Abhandlung leistet einen Beitrag zu diesem Thema, indem folgende Frage behandelt wird: Wie beeinflussen die interaktiven Framing-Dynamiken der Interessenverteter den öffentlichen Diskurs, wenn eine Vielzahl von Interessenvertretern involviert ist? Es wird hierbei vorausgesetzt, dass sich die Interessenvertretung im allgemeinen und insbesondere das Framing im Rahmen der Interaktionen zwischen den Interessenvertretern weiterentwickeln. Man stellt fest, dass konkurrierende „Diskurskoalitionen“den öffentlichen Diskurs insgesamt beeinflussen, indem abweichende Vorstellungen zu folgenden Punkten formuliert werden: 1) Was sind zuverlässige Kenntnisse? 2) Wer kann mit Autorität über die Themenpunkte sprechen? 3) Welche institutionellen Vorkehrungen für das Risikomanagement sollten getroffen werden? Die Folge ist, dass Interessenvertreter auf die Formulierungen dieser Punkte seitens anderer reagieren müssen, um ihre Kenntnisse, ihre Glaubwürdigkeit und spezifische Institutionen zu verteidigen, statt ihre Ideen an sich zu vertreten. Es liegt die Vermutung nahe, dass die Interessenvertretung nicht nur ein Einflussmittel (eine Strategie) darstellt, sondern auch auf besondere Weise den Kontext der Interessenvertretung in einem übervollen Bereich gestaltet.

Resumen

En la controversia sobre el fracking o fracturación hidráulica en Nueva York, los defensores cuestionaron calurosamente las nociones del problema, qué debería hacerse, por quién, y cómo. Esta controversia puede ser catalogada como “defensa multitudinaria”, que implica una intensa movilización y contra-movilización de los defensores con perspectivas divergentes. Las teorías existentes sobre la expansión de las organizaciones de defensa no son claras sobre cómo las interacciones de los defensores dan forma al escenario político, en particular cuando existe competencia en múltiples coaliciones y dentro de las mismas. El presente artículo contribuye preguntándose: ¿Cómo la dinámica de marcos interactivos de los defensores dan forma al discurso público cuando la defensa es multitudinaria? Asume que la defensa en general, y el marco en particular, evoluciona a medida que los defensores se responden mutuamente. Encuentro que las “coaliciones del discurso” rivales influyen colectivamente en el discurso público mediante la articulación de nociones divergentes de 1) qué constituye el conocimiento creíble, 2) quién puede hablar con autoridad sobre las cuestiones, y 3) qué acuerdos institucionales deben ser activados para gestionar los riesgos. La consecuencia es que los defensores tienen que reaccionar a otros marcos sobre estas cuestiones - para defender su conocimiento, su credibilidad, y a instituciones específicas, en lugar de defender su caso por sus méritos. La implicación es que la defensa no es solamente el medio de influir (estrategia) sino que también crea el contexto de defensa de formas particulares en un campo multitudinario.

要約

在纽约的激烈争论中,倡导者针对问题概念进行热烈争辩,需要做什么,由谁做,如何做……这一争论的特性可形容为“拥挤的倡导”,涉及持有对立观点的倡导者密集动员与反动员。现有的关于倡导组织扩张的理论,对于倡导者的互动如何塑造政策领域(特别是当在多层联盟中与多层联盟之间存在竞争时)尚未形成清晰的定论。本文提出以下问题而对此领域进行了探究:当倡导拥挤的时候,倡导者的交互框定动力是如何塑造公共交流的?假定倡导(一般而言)与框定(特别地)随着倡导者相互回应而不断演进。笔者发现,具有竞争性的“话语联盟(discourse coalitions)”通过产生以下不同的概念而一起影响公共对话:1)什么构成了可信的知识,2)在有关事项上,谁的发言具有权威性,以及3)为管理分险,应采取哪些制度安排?结果是:倡导者必须与其他方面互动,以框定这些事宜——以保卫他们的知识、可行性以及具体制度,而不是对该等优点而针对其各自的情况进行争论。理论含义可能是,倡导不但是产生影响力(战略)的方式,而且在拥挤领域里以特殊的方式创造了倡导的背景。

ملخص

الجدل في ممارسات التكسير الهيدروليكي في نيويورك يدافع بتنافس شديد لمفاهيم المشكلة، ما الذي ينبغي القيام به، على يد من، كيف. هذا الخلاف يمكن وصفه بأنه “الدعوة المزدحمة،” التي تنطوي على التعبئة المكثفة وضد تعبئة دعاة مع جهات نظر متنافسة. نظريات موجودة حول التوسع في منظمات الدعوة غير واضحة حول كيفية أن التفاعلات تشكل دعاة ساحة السياسة، خاصة عندما يكون هناك منافسة داخل وعبر تحالفات متعددة. تساهم هذه المقالة بطرح الأسئلة التالية: كيف الديناميكيات تضع صياغة حول تفاعلية الدعاة لشكل الخطاب العام عندما تكون الدعوة مزدحمة ؟ يفترض أن الدعوة بشكل عام تتطور، ووضع الصياغة على وجه الخصوص، يتطور نتيجة إستجابة الدعاة إلى بعضها البعض. أجد أن تنافس “تحالفات الخطاب” تؤثر بشكل جماعي على الخطاب العام عن طريق التعبير عن مفاهيم متباينة من 1) ما يشكل المعرفة ذات مصداقية، 2) الذين يستطيعون التحدث مع السلطة حول هذه المشاكل، و3) ما هي الترتيبات المؤسسية التي يجب تفعيلها لإدارة المخاطر. النتيجة هي أن الدعاة يجب أن يردوا على صياغة الآخرين حول هذه المسائل - للدفاع عن معرفتهم، مصداقيتها، والمؤسسات الخاصة، ليس بجدل مشكلتهم على أساس الوقائع الموضوعية. هذا يعني أن الدعوة ليست فقط وسيلة للتأثير (إستراتيجية)، لكن أيضا” تخلق سياق الدعوة بطرق معينة في حقل مزدحم.

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Notes

  1. Similarly, Walker (2007) found that corporations, trade associations and civic associations increasingly hire professional firms to implement “grassroots” lobbying efforts to mobilize citizens.

  2. This issue is well noted in the social problems literature (e.g., Hilgartner and Bosk 1988, Rochefort and Cobb 1994).

  3. This approach emphasizes the interactions of coalitions more so than the features of policy problems per se, although crowded advocacy may be more likely when problems are unstructured or wicked (Hisschemöller and Hoppe 1995; Hoppe 2010; Rittel and Webber 1973). For a different take on these interactive dynamics see Teisman (2000).

  4. Scoping hearings provided members of the public an opportunity to provide feedback to DEC on the scope of analysis for determining whether or not fracking in the Marcellus Shale would have a significant environmental impact.

  5. http://www.friendsofnaturalgasny.com/.

  6. http://www.citizenscampaign.org/campaigns/hydro-fracking.asp.

  7. www.frackaction.com/what-is-fracking/.

  8. This report was discredited for its pro-drilling position and lack of funding disclosure (Public Accountability Initiative 2013, p. 7).

  9. http://www.friendsofnaturalgasny.com/.

  10. http://anga.us/about-us#.VSNPKinF_ww.

  11. The strategy might be to attempt to shape the context, but such a strategy does not alone create the context when advocacy is crowded. Rather the contours of the context emerge from the interaction. Furthermore, when advocacy is crowded this strategy is a dual edged: as a wide range of advocates use it, they all have to deal with the consequences, such as putting more resources into defending their knowledge claims, their credibility and legitimacy, and the institutions they support. And the outcomes are far from certain.

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Dodge, J. Crowded Advocacy: Framing Dynamic in the Fracking Controversy in New York. Voluntas 28, 888–915 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-016-9800-6

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