Abstract
In situ mixing of injection low-salinity (LS) and resident high-salinity (HS) brines negatively affects the performance of low-salinity waterflooding (LSWF), particularly in tertiary injection mode. Our preceding research on the core-scale demonstrated that viscosifying the injection LS brine by adding a small amount of partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM) polymer can efficiently mitigate this challenge. Adding polymer to LS brine modifies the mobility ratio at the miscible front and increases the displacement front integrity. This study focuses on gaining direct pore-scale insights into polymer-enhanced low-salinity waterflooding (PELS) using microfluidic technique in granular porous media. In this manner, a series of single-phase, rate-controlled micromodel experiments was performed, and the impact of polymer concentration, injection rate and degree of porous medium heterogeneity on salt dispersion was studied. These experiments were run in the absence of an oleic phase and involved only aqueous phases. The pore-scale images clearly show the two mechanisms of dispersive transport and miscible viscous fingering of LS brine into HS brine. Suppression of viscous fingering, reduction in mixing zone length and delay of LS breakthrough were observed during PELS injection, supported by the reduction in dispersivity values by four–sevenfold. Although increase in heterogeneity and injection rate intensified in-situ mixing, it can be still managed by slightly increasing the concentration of the polymer. The results reveal that the HS displacement can be improved by PELS, thus a lower pore volume of LS would be required to establish low-salinity condition in the porous medium.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahmetgareev, V., Zeinijahromi, A., Badalyan, A., Khisamov, R., Bedrikovetsky, P.: Analysis of low salinity waterflooding in Bastrykskoye field. Pet. Sci. Technol. 33(5), 561–570 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1080/10916466.2014.997390
Ali, M.; Mahmud, H. B. (2015) In The effects of concentration and salinity on polymer adsorption isotherm at sandstone rock surface, IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, IOP Publishing: 012038
Al-Ibadi, H., Stephen, K.D., Mackay, E.: Insights into the fractional flow of low salinity water flooding in the light of solute dispersion and effective salinity interactions. J. Petrol. Sci. Eng. 174, 1236–1248 (2019a). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2018.12.001
Al-Ibadi, H., Stephen, K.D., Mackay, E.J.: Extended fractional-flow model of low-salinity waterflooding accounting for dispersion and effective salinity range. SPE J. (2019b). https://doi.org/10.2118/191222-PA
Al-Ibadi, H., Stephen, K., Mackay, E.: In heterogeneity effects on low salinity water flooding. SPE Europec (2020). https://doi.org/10.2118/200547-MS
Al-Ibadi, H., Stephen, K., Mackay, E.: Scaling up low-salinity waterflooding in heterogenous reservoirs. SPE J. 26(04), 2167–2188 (2021). https://doi.org/10.2118/205355-PA
Alkindi, A., Al-Wahaibi, Y., Bijeljic, B., Muggeridge, A.: Investigation of longitudinal and transverse dispersion in stable displacements with a high viscosity and density contrast between the fluids. J. Contam. Hydrol. 120, 170–183 (2011)
Al-Qattan, A., Sanaseeri, A., Al-Saleh, Z., Singh, B., Al-Kaaoud, H., Delshad, M., Hernandez, R., Winoto, W., Badham, S., Bouma, C.: In Low salinity waterflood and low salinity polymer injection in the Wara Reservoir of the Greater Burgan Field, SPE EOR conference at oil and gas West Asia. Soc. Petrol. Eng. (2018). https://doi.org/10.2118/190481-MS
Alvarado, V., Manrique, E.: Enhanced oil recovery: an update review. Energies 3(9), 1529–1575 (2010). https://doi.org/10.3390/en3091529
Aminian, A., ZareNezhad, B.: Wettability alteration in carbonate and sandstone rocks due to low salinity surfactant flooding. J. Mol. Liq. 275, 265–280 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2018.11.080
Arya, A., Hewett, T.A., Larson, R.G., Lake, L.W.: Dispersion and reservoir heterogeneity. SPE Reserv. Eng. 3(01), 139–148 (1988). https://doi.org/10.2118/14364-PA
Attar, A. Muggeridge, A. (2015) In Impact of geological heterogeneity on performance of secondary and tertiary low salinity water injection, SPE Middle East Oil & Gas Show and Conference, OnePetro.
Attar, A., Muggeridge, A.: Low salinity water injection: Impact of physical diffusion, an aquifer and geological heterogeneity on slug size. J. Petrol. Sci. Eng. 166, 1055–1070 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2018.03.023
Austad, T., RezaeiDoust, A., Puntervold, T.: In Chemical mechanism of low salinity water flooding in sandstone reservoirs, SPE improved oil recovery symposium. Soc. Petrol. Eng. (2010). https://doi.org/10.2118/129767-MS
Badaruddin, S., Mehdizadeh, S.S.: Assessment of mechanical dispersion effects on mixing zone under extreme saltwater intrusion. Groundwater Sustain. Develop. (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2021.100624
Bijeljic, B., Blunt, M.J.: Pore-scale modeling and continuous time random walk analysis of dispersion in porous media. Res Water Resourc (2006). https://doi.org/10.1029/2005WR004578
Booth, R.: On the growth of the mixing zone in miscible viscous fingering. J. Fluid Mech. 655, 527–539 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112010001734
Chuoke, R., Van Meurs, P., van der Poel, C.: The instability of slow, immiscible, viscous liquid-liquid displacements in permeable media. Transact. AIME 216(01), 188–194 (1959)
Darvish Sarvestani, A.; Rostami, B.; Mahani, H. (2020) in polymer augmented low salinity brine for mixing control in low salinity waterflooding, 82nd EAGE Annual Conference & Exhibition, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers; https://doi.org/10.3997/2214-4609.202010558.
Darvish Sarvestani, A., Rostami, B., Mahani, H.: Polymer-enhanced low-salinity brine to control in situ mixing and salt dispersion in low-salinity waterflooding. Energy Fuels (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.1c00871
Darvish Sarvestani, A., Rostami, B., Mahani, H.: Impact of injection parameters on mixing control by polymer-enhanced low-salinity waterflooding. Energy Fuels (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.2c01941
Delshad, M., Kim, D.H., Magbagbeola, O.A., Huh, C., Pope, G.A., Tarahhom, F.: In Mechanistic interpretation and utilization of viscoelastic behavior of polymer solutions for improved polymer-flood efficiency, SPE Symposium on Improved Oil Recovery. Soc. Petrol. Eng. (2008). https://doi.org/10.2118/113620-MS
Gopalakrishnan, S.S., Carballido-Landeira, J., De Wit, A., Knaepen, B.: Relative role of convective and diffusive mixing in the miscible Rayleigh-Taylor instability in porous media. Phys. Rev. Fluids 2(1), 012501 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevFluids.2.012501
Green, D. W.; Willhite, G. P., (1998) Enhanced oil recovery. Henry L. Doherty Memorial Fund of AIME, Society of Petroleum Engineers; https://doi.org/10.20431/2454-7980.0504002
Jerauld, G.R., Webb, K.J., Lin, C.-Y., Seccombe, J.: In modeling low-salinity waterflooding, spe annual technical conference and exhibition. Soc. Petrol. Eng. (2006). https://doi.org/10.2118/102239-MS
Kakati, A., Kumar, G., Sangwai, J.S.: Low salinity polymer flooding: effect on polymer rheology, injectivity, retention, and oil recovery efficiency. Energy Fuels 34(5), 5715–5732 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.0c00393
Kamal, M.S., Sultan, A.S., Al-Mubaiyedh, U.A., Hussein, I.A.: Review on polymer flooding: rheology, adsorption, stability, and field applications of various polymer systems. Polym. Rev. 55(3), 491–530 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1080/15583724.2014.982821
Katende, A., Sagala, F.: A critical review of low salinity water flooding: mechanism, laboratory and field application. J. Mol. Liq. 278, 627–649 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2019.01.037
Khisamov, V.; Akhmetgareev, V.; Shilova, T. (2017) In core tests and field case studies of successful and unsuccessful low-salinity waterfloods from four oil fields, 79th EAGE Conference and Exhibition 2017-Workshops, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers: cp-519–00053 https://doi.org/10.3997/2214-4609.201701703
Khorsandi, S., Qiao, C., Johns, R.T.: In Displacement efficiency for low salinity polymer flooding including wettability alteration, SPE Improved Oil Recovery Conference. Soc. Petrol. Eng. (2016). https://doi.org/10.2118/179695-MS
Kohl, S.K., Landmark, J.D., Stickle, D.F.: Demonstration of absorbance using digital color image analysis and colored solutions. J. Chem. Educ. 83(4), 644 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1021/ed083p644
Lee, S., Kim, D.H., Huh, C., Pope, G.A.: In Development of a comprehensive rheological property database for EOR polymers, SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition. Soc. Petrol. Eng. (2009). https://doi.org/10.2118/124798-MS
Lei, T., Meng, X., Guo, Z.: Pore-scale study on reactive mixing of miscible solutions with viscous fingering in porous media. Comput. Fluids 155, 146–160 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compfluid.2016.09.015
Levy, M., Berkowitz, B.: Measurement and analysis of non-Fickian dispersion in heterogeneous porous media. J. Contam. Hydrol. 64(3–4), 203–226 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-7722(02)00204-8
Mahadevan, J., Lake, L.W., Johns, R.T.: Estimation of true dispersivity in field-scale permeable media. SPE J. 8(03), 272–279 (2003). https://doi.org/10.2118/86303-PA
Mahani, H., Sorop, T., Ligthelm, D.J., Brooks, D., Vledder, P., Mozahem, F., Ali, Y.: In Analysis of field responses to low-salinity waterflooding in secondary and tertiary mode in Syria, SPE Europec/EAGE Annual Conference and Exhibition. Soc. Petrol. Eng. (2011). https://doi.org/10.2118/142960-MS
Mahani, H., Keya, A.L., Berg, S., Nasralla, R.: Electrokinetics of carbonate/brine interface in low-salinity waterflooding: Effect of brine salinity, composition, rock type, and pH on ζ-potential and a surface-complexation model. SPE J. 22(01), 53–68 (2017). https://doi.org/10.2118/181386-PA
Malhotra, S., Sharma, M.M., Lehman, E.R.: Experimental study of the growth of mixing zone in miscible viscous fingering. Phys. Fluids 27(1), 014105 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4905581
Manrique, E.; Thomas, C.; Ravikiran, R.; Izadi, M.; Lantz, M.; Romero, J.; Alvarado, V. (2010) In EOR: current status and opportunities, SPE improved oil recovery symposium, https://doi.org/10.2118/130113-MS.
Menand, T., Woods, A.: Dispersion, scale, and time dependence of mixing zones under gravitationally stable and unstable displacements in porous media. Res Water Resourc (2005). https://doi.org/10.1029/2004WR003701
Mohammadi, H., Jerauld, G.: In Mechanistic modeling of the benefit of combining polymer with low salinity water for enhanced oil recovery, SPE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium. Soc. Petrol. Eng. (2012). https://doi.org/10.2118/153161-MS
Mohammadi, S., Mahani, H., Ayatollahi, S., Niasar, V.: Impact of oil polarity on the mixing time at the pore scale in low salinity waterflooding. Energy Fuels 34(10), 12247–12259 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.0c01972
Nasralla, R.A., Bataweel, M.A., Nasr-El-Din, H.A.: In Investigation of wettability alteration by low salinity water, Offshore Europe. Soc. Petrol. Eng. (2011). https://doi.org/10.2118/146322-MS
Nunge, R.J., Gill, W.N.: Mechanisms affecting dispersion and miscible displacement. Ind. Eng. Chem. 61(9), 33–49 (1969). https://doi.org/10.1021/ie50717a007
Ogata, A., Banks, R.B.: A solution of the differential equation of longitudinal dispersion in porous media. US Gov. Print. Office 411, A1–A7 (1961)
Perkins, T., Johnston, O.: A review of diffusion and dispersion in porous media. Soc. Petrol. Eng. J. 3(01), 70–84 (1963). https://doi.org/10.2118/480-PA
Raney, K., Ayirala, S., Chin, R., Verbeek, P.: Surface and subsurface requirements for successful implementation of offshore chemical enhanced oil recovery. SPE Prod. Oper. 27(03), 294–305 (2012). https://doi.org/10.2118/155116-PA
RezaeiDoust, A., Puntervold, T., Strand, S., Austad, T.: Smart water as wettability modifier in carbonate and sandstone: a discussion of similarities/differences in the chemical mechanisms. Energy Fuels 23(9), 4479–4485 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1021/ef900185q
Riaz, A., Meiburg, E.: Three-dimensional miscible displacement simulations in homogeneous porous media with gravity override. J. Fluid Mech. 494, 95–117 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112003005974
Sabet, N., Hassanzadeh, H., De Wit, A., Abedi, J.: Scalings of Rayleigh-Taylor instability at large viscosity contrasts in porous media. Phys. Rev. Lett. 126(9), 094501 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.126.094501
Shaker Shiran, B., Skauge, A.: Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) by combined low salinity water/polymer flooding. Energy Fuels 27(3), 1223–1235 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1021/ef301538e
Sharp, D.H.: An overview of Rayleigh-Taylor instability. Physica D 12(1–3), 3–18 (1984)
Sheng, J.J.: Critical review of field EOR projects in shale and tight reservoirs. J. Petrol. Sci. Eng. 159, 654–665 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2017.09.022
Sheng, J.J., Leonhardt, B., Azri, N.: Status of polymer-flooding technology. J. Can. Pet. Technol. 54(02), 116–126 (2015). https://doi.org/10.2118/174541-PA
Sorbie, K., Mackay, E.: Mixing of injected, connate and aquifer brines in waterflooding and its relevance to oilfield scaling. J. Petrol. Sci. Eng. 27(1–2), 85–106 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0920-4105(00)00050-4
Suzuki, R.X., Quah, F.W., Ban, T., Mishra, M., Nagatsu, Y.: Experimental study of miscible viscous fingering with different effective interfacial tension. AIP Adv. 10(11), 115219 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0030152
Tavassoli, S., Kazemi Nia Korrani, A., Pope, G.A., Sepehrnoori, K.: Low-salinity surfactant flooding—a multimechanistic enhanced-oil-recovery method. SPE J. 21(03), 744–760 (2016). https://doi.org/10.2118/173801-PA
Taylor, G. I., (1953) Dispersion of soluble matter in solvent flowing slowly through a tube. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences, 219 (1137): 186–203, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1953.0139
Taylor, G. I., (1954) The dispersion of matter in turbulent flow through a pipe. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences , 223 (1155): 446–468, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1954.0130
Unsal, E., Ten Berge, A., Wever, D.: Low salinity polymer flooding: Lower polymer retention and improved injectivity. J. Petrol. Sci. Eng. 163, 671–682 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2017.10.069
Vermolen, E. C.; Pingo-Almada, M.; Wassing, B. M.; Ligthelm, D. J.; Masalmeh, S. K. (2014) In Low-salinity polymer flooding: improving polymer flooding technical feasibility and economics by using low-salinity make-up brine, IPTC 2014: International Petroleum Technology Conference, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers; cp-395–00047 https://doi.org/10.3997/2214-4609-pdb.395.IPTC-17342-MS.
Webb, K.; Black, C.; Edmonds, I. (2005) In Low salinity oil recovery–The role of reservoir condition corefloods, IOR 2005–13th European Symposium on Improved Oil Recovery, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers; cp-12–00045 https://doi.org/10.3997/2214-4609-pdb.12.C18.
Xia, M.: Pore-scale simulation of miscible displacement in porous media using the lattice Boltzmann method. Comput. Geosci. 88, 30–40 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2015.12.014
Zeinijahromi, A., Ahmetgareev, V., Bedrikovetsky, P.: In case study of 25 years of low salinity water injection, SPE/IATMI Asia pacific oil & gas conference and exhibition. Soc. Petrol. Eng. (2015). https://doi.org/10.2118/176128-MS
Zimmerman, W., Homsy, G.: Viscous fingering in miscible displacements: unification of effects of viscosity contrast, anisotropic dispersion, and velocity dependence of dispersion on nonlinear finger propagation. Phys. Fluids A 4(11), 2348–2359 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.858476
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Poshtpanah, M., Darvish Sarvestani, A., Mahani, H. et al. Pore-Scale Insights into In-Situ Mixing Control by Polymer-Enhanced Low-Salinity Waterflooding (PELS). Transp Porous Med 150, 45–69 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-023-01991-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-023-01991-9